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National Security Agency: Difference between revisions
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{{Organization | |||
|OrganizationName=National Security Agency | |||
|OrganizationType=Intelligence Agencies | |||
|Mission=The National Security Agency is responsible for the protection of U.S. government communications and information systems, and for collecting, processing, and disseminating foreign signals intelligence. It aims to provide insights and intelligence to help protect national security. | |||
|CreationLegislation=National Security Act of 1947 | |||
|Employees=30000 | |||
|Budget=Classified (Reportedly part of the "black budget") | |||
|OrganizationExecutive=Director | |||
|Services=Signals intelligence; Information assurance; Cybersecurity; Cryptology | |||
|HeadquartersLocation=39.10907, -76.77003 | |||
|HeadquartersAddress=9800 Savage Rd, Fort George G. Meade, MD 20755, USA | |||
|Website=https://www.nsa.gov | |||
}} | |||
{{short description|U.S. signals intelligence organization}} | {{short description|U.S. signals intelligence organization}} | ||
{{Infobox government agency | {{Infobox government agency | ||
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| website = {{URL|https://www.nsa.gov|nsa.gov}} | | website = {{URL|https://www.nsa.gov|nsa.gov}} | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{United States Armed Forces sidebar}} | {{United States Armed Forces sidebar}} | ||
The ''' National Security Agency''' ('''NSA''') is an [[intelligence agency]] of the [[United States Department of Defense]], under the authority of the [[Director of National Intelligence]] (DNI). The NSA is responsible for global monitoring, collection, and processing of information and data for foreign intelligence and [[counterintelligence]] purposes, specializing in a discipline known as [[signals intelligence]] (SIGINT). The NSA is also tasked with the [[Information assurance|protection]] of U.S. communications networks and [[information systems]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About NSA: Mission |publisher=National Security Agency |url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/mission/index.shtml |access-date=September 14, 2014 |archive-date=September 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918003311/https://www.nsa.gov/about/mission/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Nakashima" /> The NSA relies on a variety of measures to accomplish its mission, the majority of which are [[clandestine operations|clandestine]].<ref>[[Executive Order 13470]] – [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf 2008 Amendments to Executive Order 12333] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113014752/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf |date=2018-11-13 }}, United States Intelligence Activities, July 30, 2008 (PDF)</ref> The NSA has roughly 32,000 employees.<ref name=nprschorr>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5176847&t=1631649030521 |date=January 29, 2006 |access-date=September 15, 2021 |first1=Daniel |last1=Schorr |work=NPR |title=A Brief History of the NSA |archive-date=September 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915132002/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5176847&t=1631649030521 |url-status=live }}</ref> | The ''' National Security Agency''' ('''NSA''') is an [[intelligence agency]] of the [[United States Department of Defense]], under the authority of the [[Director of National Intelligence]] (DNI). The NSA is responsible for global monitoring, collection, and processing of information and data for foreign intelligence and [[counterintelligence]] purposes, specializing in a discipline known as [[signals intelligence]] (SIGINT). The NSA is also tasked with the [[Information assurance|protection]] of U.S. communications networks and [[information systems]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About NSA: Mission |publisher=National Security Agency |url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/mission/index.shtml |access-date=September 14, 2014 |archive-date=September 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918003311/https://www.nsa.gov/about/mission/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Nakashima" /> The NSA relies on a variety of measures to accomplish its mission, the majority of which are [[clandestine operations|clandestine]].<ref>[[Executive Order 13470]] – [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf 2008 Amendments to Executive Order 12333] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113014752/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf |date=2018-11-13 }}, United States Intelligence Activities, July 30, 2008 (PDF)</ref> The NSA has roughly 32,000 employees.<ref name=nprschorr>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5176847&t=1631649030521 |date=January 29, 2006 |access-date=September 15, 2021 |first1=Daniel |last1=Schorr |work=NPR |title=A Brief History of the NSA |archive-date=September 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915132002/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5176847&t=1631649030521 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
Originating as a unit to decipher coded communications in [[World War II]], it was officially formed as the NSA by President | Originating as a unit to decipher coded communications in [[World War II]], it was officially formed as the NSA by President Harry S. Truman in 1952. Between then and the end of the Cold War, it became the largest of the [[U.S. intelligence community#Organization|U.S. intelligence organizations]] in terms of personnel and budget, but information available as of 2013 indicates that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) pulled ahead in this regard, with a budget of $14.7 billion.<ref name="wapoblack1"/><ref>[[James Bamford|Bamford, James]]. ''[[Body of Secrets]]: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency'', [[Random House Digital, Inc.]], December 18, 2007</ref> The NSA currently conducts [[mass surveillance|worldwide mass data collection]] and has been known to physically [[bugging|bug]] electronic systems as one method to this end.<ref>Malkin, Bonnie. "NSA surveillance: US bugged EU offices". ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', June 30, 2013.</ref> The NSA is also alleged to have been behind such attack software as [[Stuxnet]], which severely damaged [[Nuclear program of Iran|Iran's nuclear program]].<ref>Ngak, Chenda. [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nsa-leaker-snowden-claimed-us-and-israel-co-wrote-stuxnet-virus/ "NSA leaker Snowden claimed U.S. and Israel co-wrote Stuxnet virus"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512124937/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nsa-leaker-snowden-claimed-us-and-israel-co-wrote-stuxnet-virus/ |date=2024-05-12 }}, [[CBS]], July 9, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bamford|first=James|url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/?p=58188|title=The Secret War |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125144725/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/?p=58188|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=June 12, 2013|archive-date=January 25, 2014}}</ref> The NSA, alongside the CIA, maintains a physical presence in many countries across the globe; the CIA/NSA joint [[Special Collection Service]] (a highly classified intelligence team) inserts eavesdropping devices in high-value targets (such as presidential palaces or embassies). SCS collection tactics allegedly encompass "close surveillance, burglary, wiretapping, [and] breaking and entering".<ref name=lichtblau01>{{cite news |last=Lichtblau |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Lichtblau |title=Spy Suspect May Have Revealed U.S. Bugging; Espionage: Hanssen left signs that he told Russia where top-secret overseas eavesdropping devices are placed, officials say |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=February 28, 2001 |page=A1 |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nation/updates2/lat_spy010228.htm |archive-date=April 17, 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010417230720/http://www.latimes.com/news/nation/updates2/lat_spy010228.htm |access-date=April 1, 2015 }}</ref> | ||
Unlike the CIA and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA), both of which specialize primarily in foreign [[Clandestine human intelligence|human espionage]], the NSA does not publicly conduct [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|human intelligence gathering]]. The NSA is entrusted with assisting with and coordinating, SIGINT elements for other government organizations—which are prevented by Executive Order from engaging in such activities on their own.<ref>''[[Executive Order 13470]] – [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf 2008 Amendments to Executive Order 12333] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113014752/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf |date=2018-11-13 }}, United States Intelligence Activities'', Section C.2, July 30, 2008</ref> As part of these responsibilities, the agency has a co-located organization called the [[Central Security Service]] (CSS), which facilitates cooperation between the NSA and other U.S. defense [[cryptanalysis]] components. To further ensure streamlined communication between the signals [[United States Intelligence Community|intelligence community]] divisions, the [[Director of the National Security Agency|NSA Director]] simultaneously serves as the Commander of the [[United States Cyber Command]] and as Chief of the Central Security Service. | Unlike the CIA and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA), both of which specialize primarily in foreign [[Clandestine human intelligence|human espionage]], the NSA does not publicly conduct [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|human intelligence gathering]]. The NSA is entrusted with assisting with and coordinating, SIGINT elements for other government organizations—which are prevented by Executive Order from engaging in such activities on their own.<ref>''[[Executive Order 13470]] – [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf 2008 Amendments to Executive Order 12333] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113014752/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2008-08-04/pdf/WCPD-2008-08-04-Pg1064.pdf |date=2018-11-13 }}, United States Intelligence Activities'', Section C.2, July 30, 2008</ref> As part of these responsibilities, the agency has a co-located organization called the [[Central Security Service]] (CSS), which facilitates cooperation between the NSA and other U.S. defense [[cryptanalysis]] components. To further ensure streamlined communication between the signals [[United States Intelligence Community|intelligence community]] divisions, the [[Director of the National Security Agency|NSA Director]] simultaneously serves as the Commander of the [[United States Cyber Command]] and as Chief of the Central Security Service. | ||
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== History == | == History == | ||
=== Formation === | === Formation === | ||
The origins of the National Security Agency can be traced back to April 28, 1917, three weeks after the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] declared war on Germany in | The origins of the National Security Agency can be traced back to April 28, 1917, three weeks after the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] declared war on Germany in World War I. A [[Code (cryptography)|code]] and [[cipher]] decryption unit was established as the Cable and Telegraph Section, which was also known as the Cipher Bureau.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-08-20 |title=The Black Chamber |url=https://www.nsa.gov/History/Cryptologic-History/Historical-Events/Article-View/Article/2740622/the-black-chamber/ |access-date=23 February 2018 |website=nsa.gov |archive-date=2021-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104224840/https://www.nsa.gov/History/Cryptologic-History/Historical-Events/Article-View/Article/2740622/the-black-chamber/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It was headquartered in Washington, D.C., and was part of the war effort under the executive branch without direct congressional authorization. During the war, it was relocated in the army's organizational chart several times. On July 5, 1917, [[Herbert O. Yardley]] was assigned to head the unit. At that point, the unit consisted of Yardley and two [[civilian]] clerks. It absorbed the Navy's [[cryptanalysis]] functions in July 1918. World War I ended on [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|November 11, 1918]], and the army cryptographic section of Military Intelligence (MI-8) moved to New York City on May 20, 1919, where it continued intelligence activities as the Code Compilation Company under the direction of Yardley.<ref>{{cite web |title=Records of the National Security Agency/Central Security Service [NSA/CSS] |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/457.html |access-date=November 22, 2013 |website=National Archives |archive-date=October 14, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014140149/http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/457.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/cryptologic-spectrum/assets/files/many_lives.pdf|title=The Many Lives of Herbert O. Yardley|access-date=May 26, 2016|archive-date=July 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701195112/https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/cryptologic-spectrum/assets/files/many_lives.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
=== The Black Chamber === | === The Black Chamber === | ||
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[[File:Black Chamber cryptanalytic work sheet for solving Japanese diplomatic cipher, 1919 - National Cryptologic Museum - DSC07698.JPG|thumb|right|Black Chamber cryptanalytic work sheet for solving Japanese diplomatic cipher, 1919]] | [[File:Black Chamber cryptanalytic work sheet for solving Japanese diplomatic cipher, 1919 - National Cryptologic Museum - DSC07698.JPG|thumb|right|Black Chamber cryptanalytic work sheet for solving Japanese diplomatic cipher, 1919]] | ||
After the disbandment of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] cryptographic section of military intelligence known as MI-8, the U.S. government created the Cipher Bureau, also known as [[Black Chamber]], in 1919. The Black Chamber was the United States' first peacetime [[cryptanalytic]] organization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yardley |first=Herbert O. |title=The American Black Chamber |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |year=1931 |isbn=978-1-59114-989-7 |location=Annapolis, MD}}</ref> Jointly funded by the Army and the State Department, the Cipher Bureau was disguised as a | After the disbandment of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] cryptographic section of military intelligence known as MI-8, the U.S. government created the Cipher Bureau, also known as [[Black Chamber]], in 1919. The Black Chamber was the United States' first peacetime [[cryptanalytic]] organization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yardley |first=Herbert O. |title=The American Black Chamber |publisher=[[United States Naval Institute|Naval Institute Press]] |year=1931 |isbn=978-1-59114-989-7 |location=Annapolis, MD}}</ref> Jointly funded by the Army and the State Department, the Cipher Bureau was disguised as a New York City [[commercial code (communications)|commercial code]] company; it produced and sold such codes for business use. Its true mission, however, was to break the communications (chiefly diplomatic) of other nations. At the [[Washington Naval Conference]], it aided American negotiators by providing them with the decrypted traffic of many of the conference delegations, including the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]]. The Black Chamber successfully persuaded [[Western Union]], the largest U.S. [[Telegraphy|telegram]] company at the time, as well as several other communications companies, to illegally give the Black Chamber access to cable traffic of foreign embassies and consulates.<ref>{{cite news|last=James Bamford|title=Building America's secret surveillance state|url=http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2013/06/10/building-americas-secret-surveillance-state/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613121507/http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2013/06/10/building-americas-secret-surveillance-state/|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 13, 2013|work=Reuters|access-date=November 9, 2013}}</ref> Soon, these companies publicly discontinued their collaboration. | ||
Despite the Chamber's initial successes, it was shut down in 1929 by U.S. Secretary of State [[Henry L. Stimson]], who defended his decision by stating, "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail."<ref name="encyc">{{cite book|last1=Hastedt|first1=Glenn P.|title=Spies, wiretaps, and secret operations: An encyclopedia of American espionage|year=2009|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-1-85109-807-1|page=32|author2=Guerrier, Steven W.}}</ref> | Despite the Chamber's initial successes, it was shut down in 1929 by U.S. Secretary of State [[Henry L. Stimson]], who defended his decision by stating, "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail."<ref name="encyc">{{cite book|last1=Hastedt|first1=Glenn P.|title=Spies, wiretaps, and secret operations: An encyclopedia of American espionage|year=2009|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-1-85109-807-1|page=32|author2=Guerrier, Steven W.}}</ref> | ||
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During [[World War II]], the [[Signal Intelligence Service]] (SIS) was created to intercept and decipher the communications of the [[Axis powers]].<ref name="army mil">{{cite web |title=Army Security Agency Established, 15 September 1945 |url=https://www.army.mil/article/110544/ |author=USAICoE History Office |website=army.mil |date=6 September 2013 |publisher=[[United States Army]] |access-date=November 9, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716133448/https://www.army.mil/article/110544/ |archive-date=July 16, 2020}}</ref> When the war ended, the SIS was reorganized as the [[United States Army Security Agency|Army Security Agency]] (ASA), and it was placed under the leadership of the Director of Military Intelligence.<ref name="army mil" /> | During [[World War II]], the [[Signal Intelligence Service]] (SIS) was created to intercept and decipher the communications of the [[Axis powers]].<ref name="army mil">{{cite web |title=Army Security Agency Established, 15 September 1945 |url=https://www.army.mil/article/110544/ |author=USAICoE History Office |website=army.mil |date=6 September 2013 |publisher=[[United States Army]] |access-date=November 9, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716133448/https://www.army.mil/article/110544/ |archive-date=July 16, 2020}}</ref> When the war ended, the SIS was reorganized as the [[United States Army Security Agency|Army Security Agency]] (ASA), and it was placed under the leadership of the Director of Military Intelligence.<ref name="army mil" /> | ||
On May 20, 1949, all cryptologic activities were centralized under a national organization called the Armed Forces Security Agency (AFSA).<ref name="army mil" /> This organization was originally established within the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]] under the command of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]].<ref name=Burns>{{cite web |title=The Origins of the National Security Agency 1940–1952 (U)|last=Burns |first=Thomas L. |publisher=National Security Agency |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/02.PDF |website=gwu.edu |access-date=November 28, 2020 |page=60 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129024035/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/02.PDF |archive-date=November 29, 2020}}</ref> The AFSA was tasked with directing the Department of Defense communications and electronic intelligence activities, except those of U.S. [[military intelligence]] units.<ref name=Burns /> However, the AFSA was unable to centralize [[COMINT|communications intelligence]] and failed to coordinate with civilian agencies that shared its interests, such as the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI).<ref name=Burns /> In December 1951, President | On May 20, 1949, all cryptologic activities were centralized under a national organization called the Armed Forces Security Agency (AFSA).<ref name="army mil" /> This organization was originally established within the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]] under the command of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]].<ref name=Burns>{{cite web |title=The Origins of the National Security Agency 1940–1952 (U)|last=Burns |first=Thomas L. |publisher=National Security Agency |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/02.PDF |website=gwu.edu |access-date=November 28, 2020 |page=60 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129024035/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/02.PDF |archive-date=November 29, 2020}}</ref> The AFSA was tasked with directing the Department of Defense communications and electronic intelligence activities, except those of U.S. [[military intelligence]] units.<ref name=Burns /> However, the AFSA was unable to centralize [[COMINT|communications intelligence]] and failed to coordinate with civilian agencies that shared its interests, such as the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI).<ref name=Burns /> In December 1951, President Harry S. Truman ordered a panel to investigate how AFSA had failed to achieve its goals. The results of the investigation led to improvements and its redesignation as the National Security Agency.<ref name=NSApt2of3>{{cite web |title=The Creation of NSA – Part 2 of 3: The Brownell Committee |url=https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/crypto_almanac_50th/The_Creation_of_NSA_Part_3.pdf |website=nsa.gov |publisher=National Security Agency |access-date=July 2, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918015612/http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/crypto_almanac_50th/The_Creation_of_NSA_Part_3.pdf |archive-date=September 18, 2013 }}</ref> | ||
The [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] issued a memorandum of October 24, 1952, that revised [[National Security Council Intelligence Directives|National Security Council Intelligence Directive (NSCID) 9]]. On the same day, Truman issued a second memorandum that called for the establishment of the NSA.<ref name=Truman>{{cite web |title=Memorandum |author=Truman, Harry S. |url=https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/truman/truman_memo.pdf |website=nsa.gov |publisher=National Security Agency |date=October 24, 1952 |access-date=July 2, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821073605/http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/truman/truman_memo.pdf |archive-date=August 21, 2013 }}</ref> The actual establishment of the NSA was done by a November 4 memo by [[Robert A. Lovett]], the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]], changing the name of the AFSA to the NSA, and making the new agency responsible for all communications intelligence.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas L. |last=Burns |url=https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/origins_of_nsa.pdf |title=The Origins of the National Security Agency |year=1990 |publisher=National Security Agency |series=United States Cryptologic History |volume=1 |pages=107–08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322122158/https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/origins_of_nsa.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-22 |df=mdy-all |access-date=2016-08-23 }}</ref> Since President Truman's memo was a [[classified information|classified]] document,<ref name=Truman /> the existence of the NSA was not known to the public at that time. Due to its ultra-secrecy, the U.S. intelligence community referred to the NSA as "No Such Agency".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/no-such-agency-spies-on-the-communications-of-the-world/2013/06/06/5bcd46a6-ceb9-11e2-8845-d970ccb04497_story.html|title='No Such Agency' spies on the communications of the world|last=Anne Gearan|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=November 9, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|archive-date=December 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225234416/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/no-such-agency-spies-on-the-communications-of-the-world/2013/06/06/5bcd46a6-ceb9-11e2-8845-d970ccb04497_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | The [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] issued a memorandum of October 24, 1952, that revised [[National Security Council Intelligence Directives|National Security Council Intelligence Directive (NSCID) 9]]. On the same day, Truman issued a second memorandum that called for the establishment of the NSA.<ref name=Truman>{{cite web |title=Memorandum |author=Truman, Harry S. |url=https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/truman/truman_memo.pdf |website=nsa.gov |publisher=National Security Agency |date=October 24, 1952 |access-date=July 2, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821073605/http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/truman/truman_memo.pdf |archive-date=August 21, 2013 }}</ref> The actual establishment of the NSA was done by a November 4 memo by [[Robert A. Lovett]], the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]], changing the name of the AFSA to the NSA, and making the new agency responsible for all communications intelligence.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas L. |last=Burns |url=https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/origins_of_nsa.pdf |title=The Origins of the National Security Agency |year=1990 |publisher=National Security Agency |series=United States Cryptologic History |volume=1 |pages=107–08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322122158/https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/origins_of_nsa.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-22 |df=mdy-all |access-date=2016-08-23 }}</ref> Since President Truman's memo was a [[classified information|classified]] document,<ref name=Truman /> the existence of the NSA was not known to the public at that time. Due to its ultra-secrecy, the U.S. intelligence community referred to the NSA as "No Such Agency".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/no-such-agency-spies-on-the-communications-of-the-world/2013/06/06/5bcd46a6-ceb9-11e2-8845-d970ccb04497_story.html|title='No Such Agency' spies on the communications of the world|last=Anne Gearan|date=June 7, 2013|access-date=November 9, 2013|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|archive-date=December 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225234416/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/no-such-agency-spies-on-the-communications-of-the-world/2013/06/06/5bcd46a6-ceb9-11e2-8845-d970ccb04497_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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=== Vietnam War === | === Vietnam War === | ||
{{Main|Project MINARET|NESTOR (encryption)}} | {{Main|Project MINARET|NESTOR (encryption)}} | ||
In the 1960s, the NSA played a key role in expanding U.S. commitment to the | In the 1960s, the NSA played a key role in expanding U.S. commitment to the Vietnam War by providing evidence of a [[North Vietnam]]ese attack on the American destroyer {{USS|Maddox|DD-731|6}} during the [[Gulf of Tonkin incident]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Scott |last=Shane |title=Vietnam Study, Casting Doubts, Remains Secret |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/31/politics/31war.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 31, 2005 |quote=The National Security Agency has kept secret since 2001 a finding by an agency historian that during the Tonkin Gulf episode, which helped precipitate the Vietnam War |access-date=June 7, 2024 |archive-date=March 28, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328104601/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/31/politics/31war.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
A secret operation, code-named "[[Project MINARET|MINARET]]", was set up by the NSA to monitor the phone communications of Senators [[Frank Church]] and [[Howard Baker]], as well as key leaders of the [[civil rights movement]], including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], and prominent U.S. journalists and athletes who criticized the | A secret operation, code-named "[[Project MINARET|MINARET]]", was set up by the NSA to monitor the phone communications of Senators [[Frank Church]] and [[Howard Baker]], as well as key leaders of the [[civil rights movement]], including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], and prominent U.S. journalists and athletes who criticized the Vietnam War.<ref name=Minaret>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/26/nsa-surveillance-anti-vietnam-muhammad-ali-mlk "Declassified NSA Files Show Agency Spied on Muhammad Ali and MLK Operation Minaret Set Up in the 1960s to Monitor Anti-Vietnam Critics, Branded 'Disreputable If Not Outright Illegal' by NSA Itself"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926154853/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/26/nsa-surveillance-anti-vietnam-muhammad-ali-mlk |date=2013-09-26 }} ''The Guardian'', September 26, 2013</ref> However, the project turned out to be controversial, and an internal review by the NSA concluded that its Minaret program was "disreputable if not outright illegal".<ref name=Minaret /> | ||
The NSA mounted a major effort to secure tactical communications among U.S. forces during the war with mixed success. The [[NESTOR (encryption)|NESTOR]] family of compatible [[secure voice]] systems it developed was widely deployed during the | The NSA mounted a major effort to secure tactical communications among U.S. forces during the war with mixed success. The [[NESTOR (encryption)|NESTOR]] family of compatible [[secure voice]] systems it developed was widely deployed during the Vietnam War, with about 30,000 NESTOR sets produced. However, a variety of technical and operational problems limited their use, allowing the North Vietnamese to exploit and intercept U.S. communications.<ref name=boaklectures>{{Cite book|last=Boak|first=David G.|title=A History of U.S. Communications Security; the David G. Boak Lectures, Vol. 1|orig-year=1966|url=https://www.governmentattic.org/18docs/Hist_US_COMSEC_Boak_NSA_1973u.pdf|access-date=2017-04-23|edition=2015 partial declassification|date=July 1973|publisher=U.S. National Security Agency|location=Ft. George G. Meade, MD|archive-date=2017-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525181251/https://www.governmentattic.org/18docs/Hist_US_COMSEC_Boak_NSA_1973u.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
{{rp|Vol I, p.79}} | {{rp|Vol I, p.79}} | ||
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=== From 1980s to 1990s === | === From 1980s to 1990s === | ||
In 1986, the NSA intercepted the communications of the Libyan government during the immediate aftermath of the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|Berlin discotheque bombing]]. The [[White House]] asserted that the NSA interception had provided "irrefutable" evidence that Libya was behind the bombing, which U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] cited as a justification for the [[1986 United States bombing of Libya]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Seymour M. Hersh|title=Target Qaddafi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/magazine/target-qaddafi.html?pagewanted=all|work= | In 1986, the NSA intercepted the communications of the Libyan government during the immediate aftermath of the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|Berlin discotheque bombing]]. The [[White House]] asserted that the NSA interception had provided "irrefutable" evidence that Libya was behind the bombing, which U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] cited as a justification for the [[1986 United States bombing of Libya]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Seymour M. Hersh|title=Target Qaddafi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/magazine/target-qaddafi.html?pagewanted=all|work=The New York Times|access-date=January 12, 2014|date=February 22, 1987|archive-date=January 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124070854/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/magazine/target-qaddafi.html?pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=David Wise|title=Espionage Case Pits CIA Against News Media|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-05-18-op-21101-story.html|work=[[The Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=January 12, 2014|date=May 18, 1986|quote=the President took an unprecedented step in discussing the content of the Libyan cables. He was, by implication, revealing that the NSA had broken the Libyan code.|archive-date=January 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113125722/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-05-18/opinion/op-21101_1_news-media/2|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
In 1999, a multi-year investigation by the European Parliament highlighted the NSA's role in economic espionage in a report entitled 'Development of Surveillance Technology and Risk of Abuse of Economic Information'.<ref>{{cite report |author=Peggy Becker |date=October 1999 |title=Development of Surveillance Technology and Risk of Abuse of Economic Information |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/cms/cache/offonce/home/publications/studies?page=12 |publisher=STOA, European Parliament |page=12 |access-date=November 3, 2013 |archive-date=January 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125141702/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/cms/cache/offonce/home/publications/studies?page=12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> That year, the NSA founded the [[NSA Hall of Honor]], a memorial at the [[National Cryptologic Museum]] in Fort Meade, Maryland.<ref name=SunHall /> The memorial is a, "tribute to the pioneers and heroes who have made significant and long-lasting contributions to American cryptology".<ref name=SunHall /> NSA employees must be retired for more than fifteen years to qualify for the memorial.<ref name=SunHall>{{cite news|author=Staff|title=NSA honors 4 in the science of codes|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2003/06/13/nsa-honors-4-in-the-science-of-codes/|date=June 13, 2003|work=The Baltimore Sun|publisher=Tribune Company|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=June 14, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614020759/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2003-06-13/news/0306130156_1_cryptology-hall-of-honor-pioneers|url-status=live}}</ref> | In 1999, a multi-year investigation by the European Parliament highlighted the NSA's role in economic espionage in a report entitled 'Development of Surveillance Technology and Risk of Abuse of Economic Information'.<ref>{{cite report |author=Peggy Becker |date=October 1999 |title=Development of Surveillance Technology and Risk of Abuse of Economic Information |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/cms/cache/offonce/home/publications/studies?page=12 |publisher=STOA, European Parliament |page=12 |access-date=November 3, 2013 |archive-date=January 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125141702/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/cms/cache/offonce/home/publications/studies?page=12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> That year, the NSA founded the [[NSA Hall of Honor]], a memorial at the [[National Cryptologic Museum]] in Fort Meade, Maryland.<ref name=SunHall /> The memorial is a, "tribute to the pioneers and heroes who have made significant and long-lasting contributions to American cryptology".<ref name=SunHall /> NSA employees must be retired for more than fifteen years to qualify for the memorial.<ref name=SunHall>{{cite news|author=Staff|title=NSA honors 4 in the science of codes|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2003/06/13/nsa-honors-4-in-the-science-of-codes/|date=June 13, 2003|work=The Baltimore Sun|publisher=Tribune Company|access-date=June 11, 2013|archive-date=June 14, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614020759/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2003-06-13/news/0306130156_1_cryptology-hall-of-honor-pioneers|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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=== War on Terror === | === War on Terror === | ||
In the aftermath of the | In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, the NSA created new IT systems to deal with the flood of information from new technologies like the Internet and cell phones. [[ThinThread]] contained advanced [[data mining]] capabilities. It also had a "privacy mechanism"; surveillance was stored encrypted; decryption required a warrant. The research done under this program may have contributed to the technology used in later systems. ThinThread was canceled when Michael Hayden chose [[Trailblazer Project|Trailblazer]], which did not include ThinThread's privacy system.<ref name="Sun">{{cite news|first=Siobhan|last=Gorman|title=NSA killed system that sifted phone data legally|url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.nsa18may18,1,5386811.story|work=[[The Baltimore Sun]]|publisher=[[Tribune Company]] (Chicago, IL)|date=May 17, 2006|access-date=March 7, 2008|quote=The privacy protections offered by ThinThread were also abandoned in the post–September 11 push by the president for a faster response to terrorism.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193047/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.nsa18may18%2C1%2C5386811.story?ctrack=1&cset=true|archive-date=September 27, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
[[Trailblazer Project]] ramped up in 2002 and was worked on by [[Science Applications International Corporation]] (SAIC), [[Boeing]], [[Computer Sciences Corporation]], [[IBM]], and [[Litton Industries]]. Some NSA [[whistleblower]]s complained internally about major problems surrounding Trailblazer. This led to investigations by Congress and the NSA and DoD [[Inspectors General]]. The project was canceled in early 2004. | [[Trailblazer Project]] ramped up in 2002 and was worked on by [[Science Applications International Corporation]] (SAIC), [[Boeing]], [[Computer Sciences Corporation]], [[IBM]], and [[Litton Industries]]. Some NSA [[whistleblower]]s complained internally about major problems surrounding Trailblazer. This led to investigations by Congress and the NSA and DoD [[Inspectors General]]. The project was canceled in early 2004. | ||
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To support its [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition]] program, the NSA is intercepting "millions of images per day".<ref>{{cite news|author1=James Risen|author2=Laura Poitras|title=N.S.A. Collecting Millions of Faces From Web Images|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/01/us/nsa-collecting-millions-of-faces-from-web-images.html|access-date=June 1, 2014|newspaper=The New York Times|date=May 31, 2014|archive-date=June 1, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140601084735/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/01/us/nsa-collecting-millions-of-faces-from-web-images.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | To support its [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition]] program, the NSA is intercepting "millions of images per day".<ref>{{cite news|author1=James Risen|author2=Laura Poitras|title=N.S.A. Collecting Millions of Faces From Web Images|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/01/us/nsa-collecting-millions-of-faces-from-web-images.html|access-date=June 1, 2014|newspaper=The New York Times|date=May 31, 2014|archive-date=June 1, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140601084735/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/01/us/nsa-collecting-millions-of-faces-from-web-images.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
The [[Real Time Regional Gateway]] is a data collection program introduced in 2005 in Iraq by the NSA during the [[Iraq War]] that consisted of gathering all electronic communication, storing it, then searching and otherwise analyzing it. It was effective in providing information about Iraqi insurgents who had eluded less comprehensive techniques.<ref name="WP71413">{{cite news|title=For NSA chief, terrorist threat drives passion to 'collect it all,' observers say|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/for-nsa-chief-terrorist-threat-drives-passion-to-collect-it-all/2013/07/14/3d26ef80-ea49-11e2-a301-ea5a8116d211_story.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=July 14, 2013|author=Ellen Nakashima|author2=Joby Warrick|quote=Collect it all, tag it, store it. . . . And whatever it is you want, you go searching for it.|archive-date=March 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301114727/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/for-nsa-chief-terrorist-threat-drives-passion-to-collect-it-all/2013/07/14/3d26ef80-ea49-11e2-a301-ea5a8116d211_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This "collect it all" strategy introduced by NSA director, [[Keith B. Alexander]], is believed by [[Glenn Greenwald]] of '' | The [[Real Time Regional Gateway]] is a data collection program introduced in 2005 in Iraq by the NSA during the [[Iraq War]] that consisted of gathering all electronic communication, storing it, then searching and otherwise analyzing it. It was effective in providing information about Iraqi insurgents who had eluded less comprehensive techniques.<ref name="WP71413">{{cite news|title=For NSA chief, terrorist threat drives passion to 'collect it all,' observers say|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/for-nsa-chief-terrorist-threat-drives-passion-to-collect-it-all/2013/07/14/3d26ef80-ea49-11e2-a301-ea5a8116d211_story.html|access-date=July 15, 2013|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=July 14, 2013|author=Ellen Nakashima|author2=Joby Warrick|quote=Collect it all, tag it, store it. . . . And whatever it is you want, you go searching for it.|archive-date=March 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301114727/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/for-nsa-chief-terrorist-threat-drives-passion-to-collect-it-all/2013/07/14/3d26ef80-ea49-11e2-a301-ea5a8116d211_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This "collect it all" strategy introduced by NSA director, [[Keith B. Alexander]], is believed by [[Glenn Greenwald]] of ''The Guardian'' to be the model for the comprehensive worldwide mass archiving of communications which NSA is engaged in as of 2013.<ref name="NSA71513">{{cite news|title=The crux of the NSA story in one phrase: 'collect it all': The actual story that matters is not hard to see: the NSA is attempting to collect, monitor, and store all forms of human communication|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jul/15/crux-nsa-collect-it-all|access-date=July 16, 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=July 15, 2013|author=Glenn Greenwald|archive-date=March 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310132541/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jul/15/crux-nsa-collect-it-all|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
A dedicated unit of the NSA locates targets for the [[CIA]] for extrajudicial assassination in the Middle East.<ref name="MillerTateTargeted">Greg Miller and Julie Tate, October 17, 2013, "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/documents-reveal-nsas-extensive-involvement-in-targeted-killing-program/2013/10/16/29775278-3674-11e3-8a0e-4e2cf80831fc_story.html Documents reveal NSA's extensive involvement in targeted killing program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823063930/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/documents-reveal-nsas-extensive-involvement-in-targeted-killing-program/2013/10/16/29775278-3674-11e3-8a0e-4e2cf80831fc_story.html |date=2017-08-23 }}", ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved October 18, 2013.</ref> The NSA has also spied extensively on the European Union, the United Nations, and numerous governments including allies and trading partners in Europe, South America, and Asia.<ref>Laura Poitras, Marcel Rosenbach, Fidelius Schmid und Holger Stark. "[http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzpolitik/nsa-hat-wanzen-in-eu-gebaeuden-installiert-a-908515.html Geheimdokumente: NSA horcht EU-Vertretungen mit Wanzen aus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518182038/https://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzpolitik/nsa-hat-wanzen-in-eu-gebaeuden-installiert-a-908515.html |date=2024-05-18 }}". ''Der Spiegel'' (in German). Retrieved June 29, 2013.</ref><ref>"[http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/nsa-hoerte-zentrale-der-vereinte-nationen-in-new-york-ab-a-918421.html US-Geheimdienst hörte Zentrale der Vereinten Nationen ab] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512130608/https://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/nsa-hoerte-zentrale-der-vereinte-nationen-in-new-york-ab-a-918421.html |date=2024-05-12 }}". ''Der Spiegel'' (in German). Retrieved August 25, 2013.</ref> In June 2015, [[WikiLeaks]] published documents showing that NSA spied on [[France|French]] companies.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/wikileaks-enthuellung-nsa-soll-auch-franzoesische-wirtschaft-bespitzelt-haben-a-1041268.html Spiegel.de: Wikileaks-Enthüllung, NSA soll auch französische Wirtschaft bespizelt haben (German)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919202253/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/wikileaks-enthuellung-nsa-soll-auch-franzoesische-wirtschaft-bespitzelt-haben-a-1041268.html |date=2016-09-19 }}, June 2015</ref> WikiLeaks also published documents showing that NSA spied on federal German ministries since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/wikileaks-und-taeglich-gruesst-die-nsa/12034888.html|title=Wikileaks: Und täglich grüßt die NSA|author=|date=July 9, 2015|website=Handelsblatt.com|access-date=March 10, 2017|archive-date=October 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018075016/https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/wikileaks-und-taeglich-gruesst-die-nsa/12034888.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/nsa-skanal-us-spionage-ist-eine-demuetigung-fuer-deutschland-1.2558131|title=US-Spionage ist eine Demütigung für Deutschland|first=Tanjev|last=Schultz|website=Süddeutsche.de|date=9 July 2015|access-date=23 February 2022|archive-date=23 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223192449/https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/nsa-skanal-us-spionage-ist-eine-demuetigung-fuer-deutschland-1.2558131|url-status=live}}</ref> Even Germany's Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]]'s cellphones and phones of her predecessors had been intercepted.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/08/nsa-tapped-german-chancellery-decades-wikileaks-claims-merkel|title=NSA tapped German Chancellery for decades, WikiLeaks claims|agency=Reuters|date=8 July 2015 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> | A dedicated unit of the NSA locates targets for the [[CIA]] for extrajudicial assassination in the Middle East.<ref name="MillerTateTargeted">Greg Miller and Julie Tate, October 17, 2013, "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/documents-reveal-nsas-extensive-involvement-in-targeted-killing-program/2013/10/16/29775278-3674-11e3-8a0e-4e2cf80831fc_story.html Documents reveal NSA's extensive involvement in targeted killing program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823063930/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/documents-reveal-nsas-extensive-involvement-in-targeted-killing-program/2013/10/16/29775278-3674-11e3-8a0e-4e2cf80831fc_story.html |date=2017-08-23 }}", ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved October 18, 2013.</ref> The NSA has also spied extensively on the European Union, the United Nations, and numerous governments including allies and trading partners in Europe, South America, and Asia.<ref>Laura Poitras, Marcel Rosenbach, Fidelius Schmid und Holger Stark. "[http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzpolitik/nsa-hat-wanzen-in-eu-gebaeuden-installiert-a-908515.html Geheimdokumente: NSA horcht EU-Vertretungen mit Wanzen aus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518182038/https://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzpolitik/nsa-hat-wanzen-in-eu-gebaeuden-installiert-a-908515.html |date=2024-05-18 }}". ''Der Spiegel'' (in German). Retrieved June 29, 2013.</ref><ref>"[http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/nsa-hoerte-zentrale-der-vereinte-nationen-in-new-york-ab-a-918421.html US-Geheimdienst hörte Zentrale der Vereinten Nationen ab] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512130608/https://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/nsa-hoerte-zentrale-der-vereinte-nationen-in-new-york-ab-a-918421.html |date=2024-05-12 }}". ''Der Spiegel'' (in German). Retrieved August 25, 2013.</ref> In June 2015, [[WikiLeaks]] published documents showing that NSA spied on [[France|French]] companies.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/wikileaks-enthuellung-nsa-soll-auch-franzoesische-wirtschaft-bespitzelt-haben-a-1041268.html Spiegel.de: Wikileaks-Enthüllung, NSA soll auch französische Wirtschaft bespizelt haben (German)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919202253/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/wikileaks-enthuellung-nsa-soll-auch-franzoesische-wirtschaft-bespitzelt-haben-a-1041268.html |date=2016-09-19 }}, June 2015</ref> WikiLeaks also published documents showing that NSA spied on federal German ministries since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/wikileaks-und-taeglich-gruesst-die-nsa/12034888.html|title=Wikileaks: Und täglich grüßt die NSA|author=|date=July 9, 2015|website=Handelsblatt.com|access-date=March 10, 2017|archive-date=October 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018075016/https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/wikileaks-und-taeglich-gruesst-die-nsa/12034888.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/nsa-skanal-us-spionage-ist-eine-demuetigung-fuer-deutschland-1.2558131|title=US-Spionage ist eine Demütigung für Deutschland|first=Tanjev|last=Schultz|website=Süddeutsche.de|date=9 July 2015|access-date=23 February 2022|archive-date=23 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223192449/https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/nsa-skanal-us-spionage-ist-eine-demuetigung-fuer-deutschland-1.2558131|url-status=live}}</ref> Even Germany's Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]]'s cellphones and phones of her predecessors had been intercepted.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/08/nsa-tapped-german-chancellery-decades-wikileaks-claims-merkel|title=NSA tapped German Chancellery for decades, WikiLeaks claims|agency=Reuters|date=8 July 2015 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> | ||
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{{See also|NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)}} | {{See also|NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)}} | ||
George W. Bush, president during the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 terrorist attacks]], approved the [[Patriot Act]] shortly after the attacks to take anti-terrorist security measures. [[Title I of the Patriot Act|Titles 1]], [[Title II of the Patriot Act|2]], and [[Title IX of the Patriot Act|9]] specifically authorized measures that would be taken by the NSA. These titles granted enhanced domestic security against terrorism, surveillance procedures, and improved intelligence, respectively. On March 10, 2004, there was a debate between President Bush and White House Counsel [[Alberto Gonzales]], Attorney General [[John Ashcroft]], and Acting Attorney General [[James Comey]]. The Attorneys General were unsure if the NSA's programs could be considered constitutional. They threatened to resign over the matter, but ultimately the NSA's programs continued.<ref>{{cite book|title=President George W. Bush's Influence Over Bureaucracy and Policy|last=Provost|first=Colin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2009|isbn=978-0-230-60954-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/presidentgeorgew0000unse/page/94 94–99]|url=https://archive.org/details/presidentgeorgew0000unse/page/94}}</ref> On March 11, 2004, President Bush signed a new authorization for mass surveillance of Internet records, in addition to the surveillance of phone records. This allowed the president to be able to override laws such as the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]], which protected civilians from mass surveillance. In addition to this, President Bush also signed that the measures of mass surveillance were also retroactively in place.<ref name=NYTimes2015-09-20 /><ref name="NYTWarrantless">[[James Risen]] & [[Eric Lichtblau]] (December 16, 2005), [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524040621/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html |date=2015-05-24 }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> | |||
One such surveillance program, authorized by the U.S. Signals Intelligence Directive 18 of President George Bush, was the Highlander Project undertaken for the National Security Agency by the U.S. Army [[513th Military Intelligence Brigade]]. NSA relayed telephone (including cell phone) conversations obtained from ground, airborne, and satellite monitoring stations to various U.S. Army Signal Intelligence Officers, including the [[201st Expeditionary Military Intelligence Brigade|201st Military Intelligence Battalion]]. Conversations of citizens of the U.S. were intercepted, along with those of other nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/index2.html |title=Gwu.edu |publisher=Gwu.edu |access-date=October 9, 2013 |archive-date=June 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602002703/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/index2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | One such surveillance program, authorized by the U.S. Signals Intelligence Directive 18 of President George Bush, was the Highlander Project undertaken for the National Security Agency by the U.S. Army [[513th Military Intelligence Brigade]]. NSA relayed telephone (including cell phone) conversations obtained from ground, airborne, and satellite monitoring stations to various U.S. Army Signal Intelligence Officers, including the [[201st Expeditionary Military Intelligence Brigade|201st Military Intelligence Battalion]]. Conversations of citizens of the U.S. were intercepted, along with those of other nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/index2.html |title=Gwu.edu |publisher=Gwu.edu |access-date=October 9, 2013 |archive-date=June 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602002703/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB23/index2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
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=== Personnel security === | === Personnel security === | ||
The NSA received criticism early on in 1960 after two agents had defected to the | The NSA received criticism early on in 1960 after two agents had defected to the Soviet Union. Investigations by the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] and a special subcommittee of the [[United States House Committee on Armed Services]] revealed severe cases of ignorance of personnel security regulations, prompting the former personnel director and the director of security to step down and leading to the adoption of stricter security practices.<ref name="Kahn">David Kahn, ''The Codebreakers'', Scribner Press, 1967, chapter 19, pp. 672–733.</ref> Nonetheless, security breaches reoccurred only a year later when in an issue of ''[[Izvestia]]'' of July 23, 1963, a former NSA employee published several cryptologic secrets. | ||
The very same day, an NSA clerk-messenger committed [[suicide]] as ongoing investigations disclosed that he had sold secret information to the Soviets regularly. The reluctance of congressional houses to look into these affairs prompted a journalist to write, "If a similar series of tragic blunders occurred in any ordinary agency of Government an aroused public would insist that those responsible be officially censured, demoted, or fired." [[David Kahn (writer)|David Kahn]] criticized the NSA's tactics of concealing its doings as smug and the Congress' blind faith in the agency's right-doing as shortsighted, and pointed out the necessity of surveillance by the Congress to prevent abuse of power.<ref name="Kahn" /> | The very same day, an NSA clerk-messenger committed [[suicide]] as ongoing investigations disclosed that he had sold secret information to the Soviets regularly. The reluctance of congressional houses to look into these affairs prompted a journalist to write, "If a similar series of tragic blunders occurred in any ordinary agency of Government an aroused public would insist that those responsible be officially censured, demoted, or fired." [[David Kahn (writer)|David Kahn]] criticized the NSA's tactics of concealing its doings as smug and the Congress' blind faith in the agency's right-doing as shortsighted, and pointed out the necessity of surveillance by the Congress to prevent abuse of power.<ref name="Kahn" /> | ||
[[Edward Snowden]]'s leaking of the existence of [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM]] in 2013 caused the NSA to institute a "[[two-man rule]]", where two system administrators are required to be present when one accesses certain sensitive information.<ref name=DrewSengupta>{{cite news|author1=Drew, Christopher|author2=Somini Sengupta|name-list-style=amp|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/24/technology/nsa-leak-puts-focus-on-system-administrators.html|title=N.S.A. Leak Puts Focus on System Administrators|work= | [[Edward Snowden]]'s leaking of the existence of [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM]] in 2013 caused the NSA to institute a "[[two-man rule]]", where two system administrators are required to be present when one accesses certain sensitive information.<ref name=DrewSengupta>{{cite news|author1=Drew, Christopher|author2=Somini Sengupta|name-list-style=amp|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/24/technology/nsa-leak-puts-focus-on-system-administrators.html|title=N.S.A. Leak Puts Focus on System Administrators|work=The New York Times|date=June 24, 2013|access-date=June 25, 2013|archive-date=June 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625074056/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/24/technology/nsa-leak-puts-focus-on-system-administrators.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Snowden claims he suggested such a rule in 2009.<ref name=edaccomplished>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/edward-snowden-after-months-of-nsa-revelations-says-his-missions-accomplished/2013/12/23/49fc36de-6c1c-11e3-a523-fe73f0ff6b8d_story.html|title=Edward Snowden, after months of NSA revelations, says his mission's accomplished|author=Barton Gellman|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=December 25, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2024|archive-date=December 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201015330/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/edward-snowden-after-months-of-nsa-revelations-says-his-missions-accomplished/2013/12/23/49fc36de-6c1c-11e3-a523-fe73f0ff6b8d_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
==== Polygraphing ==== | ==== Polygraphing ==== | ||
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[[File:NSA-Fort Meade-1950.png|thumb|Headquarters at [[Fort Meade]] circa 1950s]] | [[File:NSA-Fort Meade-1950.png|thumb|Headquarters at [[Fort Meade]] circa 1950s]] | ||
When the agency was first established, its headquarters and cryptographic center were in the Naval Security Station in Washington, D.C. The COMINT functions were located in [[Arlington Hall]] in [[Northern Virginia]], which served as the headquarters of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]'s cryptographic operations.<ref name=60yearsp15>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Because the | When the agency was first established, its headquarters and cryptographic center were in the Naval Security Station in Washington, D.C. The COMINT functions were located in [[Arlington Hall]] in [[Northern Virginia]], which served as the headquarters of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]'s cryptographic operations.<ref name=60yearsp15>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> Because the Soviet Union had detonated a nuclear bomb and because the facilities were crowded, the federal government wanted to move several agencies, including the AFSA/NSA. A planning committee considered [[Fort Knox]], but [[Fort George G. Meade|Fort Meade]], [[Maryland]], was ultimately chosen as NSA headquarters because it was far enough away from Washington, D.C. in case of a nuclear strike and was close enough so its employees would not have to move their families.<ref name="60yearsp10" /> | ||
Construction of additional buildings began after the agency occupied buildings at Fort Meade in the late 1950s, which they soon outgrew.<ref name=60yearsp10>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1963 the new headquarters building, nine stories tall, opened. NSA workers referred to the building as the "Headquarters Building" and since the NSA management occupied the top floor, workers used "Ninth Floor" to refer to their leaders.<ref>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> COMSEC remained in Washington, D.C., until its new building was completed in 1968.<ref name=60yearsp10 /> In September 1986, the Operations 2A and 2B buildings, both copper-shielded to prevent [[eavesdropping]], opened with a dedication by President [[Ronald Reagan]].<ref name=60yearsp39 /> The four NSA buildings became known as the "Big Four."<ref name=60yearsp39 /> The NSA director moved to 2B when it opened.<ref name=60yearsp39>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> | Construction of additional buildings began after the agency occupied buildings at Fort Meade in the late 1950s, which they soon outgrew.<ref name=60yearsp10>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1963 the new headquarters building, nine stories tall, opened. NSA workers referred to the building as the "Headquarters Building" and since the NSA management occupied the top floor, workers used "Ninth Floor" to refer to their leaders.<ref>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> COMSEC remained in Washington, D.C., until its new building was completed in 1968.<ref name=60yearsp10 /> In September 1986, the Operations 2A and 2B buildings, both copper-shielded to prevent [[eavesdropping]], opened with a dedication by President [[Ronald Reagan]].<ref name=60yearsp39 /> The four NSA buildings became known as the "Big Four."<ref name=60yearsp39 /> The NSA director moved to 2B when it opened.<ref name=60yearsp39>{{cite web|title=60 Years of Defending Our Nation|publisher=National Security Agency|year=2012|url=https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|access-date=July 6, 2013|page=39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022314/http://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic_heritage/60th/book/NSA_60th_Anniversary.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
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=== Perfect Citizen === | === Perfect Citizen === | ||
{{Main|Perfect Citizen}} | {{Main|Perfect Citizen}} | ||
Perfect Citizen is a program to perform [[Vulnerability assessment (computing)|vulnerability assessment]] by the NSA in the American [[critical infrastructure]].<ref>[https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/07/nsa-perfect-citizen-denial/ NSA Denies It Will Spy on Utilities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209204445/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/07/nsa-perfect-citizen-denial/ |date=2014-02-09 }}, Threat Level, Wired.com</ref><ref name="dt1">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytech.com/NSAs+Perfect+Citizen+Program++Big+Brother+or+Cybersecurity+Savior/article18969.htm|title=DailyTech – NSA's "Perfect Citizen" Program: Big Brother or Cybersecurity Savior?|last=Mick|first=Jason|date=July 8, 2010|work=DailyTech|access-date=July 8, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711071346/http://www.dailytech.com/NSAs+Perfect+Citizen+Program++Big+Brother+or+Cybersecurity+Savior/article18969.htm|archive-date=July 11, 2010}}</ref> It was originally reported to be a program to develop a system of sensors to detect cyber attacks on critical infrastructure computer networks in both the private and public sector through a [[network monitoring]] system named ''Einstein''.<ref name="cn1">{{cite news|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-20009952-83.html|title=Report: NSA initiating program to detect cyberattacks|last=Whitney|first=Lance|date=July 8, 2010|work=[[CNET.com]]|access-date=July 8, 2010|archive-date=June 17, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617035918/http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-20009952-83.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Program to Detect Cyber Attacks on Infrastructure |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704545004575352983850463108?mod=WSJ_hpp_MIDDLETopStories |newspaper= | Perfect Citizen is a program to perform [[Vulnerability assessment (computing)|vulnerability assessment]] by the NSA in the American [[critical infrastructure]].<ref>[https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/07/nsa-perfect-citizen-denial/ NSA Denies It Will Spy on Utilities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209204445/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/07/nsa-perfect-citizen-denial/ |date=2014-02-09 }}, Threat Level, Wired.com</ref><ref name="dt1">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytech.com/NSAs+Perfect+Citizen+Program++Big+Brother+or+Cybersecurity+Savior/article18969.htm|title=DailyTech – NSA's "Perfect Citizen" Program: Big Brother or Cybersecurity Savior?|last=Mick|first=Jason|date=July 8, 2010|work=DailyTech|access-date=July 8, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711071346/http://www.dailytech.com/NSAs+Perfect+Citizen+Program++Big+Brother+or+Cybersecurity+Savior/article18969.htm|archive-date=July 11, 2010}}</ref> It was originally reported to be a program to develop a system of sensors to detect cyber attacks on critical infrastructure computer networks in both the private and public sector through a [[network monitoring]] system named ''Einstein''.<ref name="cn1">{{cite news|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-20009952-83.html|title=Report: NSA initiating program to detect cyberattacks|last=Whitney|first=Lance|date=July 8, 2010|work=[[CNET.com]]|access-date=July 8, 2010|archive-date=June 17, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617035918/http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-20009952-83.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Program to Detect Cyber Attacks on Infrastructure |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704545004575352983850463108?mod=WSJ_hpp_MIDDLETopStories |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=July 7, 2010 |access-date=July 7, 2010 |first=Siobhan |last=Gorman |archive-date=May 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507085839/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704545004575352983850463108?mod=WSJ_hpp_MIDDLETopStories |url-status=live }}</ref> It is funded by the [[Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative]] and thus far [[Raytheon Technologies|Raytheon]] has received a contract for up to $100 million for the initial stage. | ||
=== Academic research === | === Academic research === | ||
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{{See also|NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)}} | {{See also|NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)}} | ||
On December 16, 2005, '' | On December 16, 2005, ''The New York Times'' reported that under [[White House]] pressure and with an [[executive order]] from President George W. Bush, the National Security Agency, in an attempt to thwart terrorism, had been tapping phone calls made to persons outside the country, without obtaining [[warrant (law)|warrants]] from the [[United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]], a secret court created for that purpose under the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] (FISA).<ref name="NYTWarrantless"/> | ||
===[[Edward Snowden]]=== | ===[[Edward Snowden]]=== | ||
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===Other surveillance=== | ===Other surveillance=== | ||
On January 17, 2006, the [[Center for Constitutional Rights]] filed a lawsuit, [[CCR v. Bush]], against the | On January 17, 2006, the [[Center for Constitutional Rights]] filed a lawsuit, [[CCR v. Bush]], against the George W. Bush presidency. The lawsuit challenged the National Security Agency's (NSA's) surveillance of people within the U.S., including the interception of CCR emails without securing a warrant first.<ref name=TheJurist200705may21>{{cite news |url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/05/ex-guantanamo-lawyers-sue-for.php |date=May 19, 2007 |title=Ex-Guantanamo lawyers sue for recordings of client meetings |author=Mike Rosen-Molina |publisher=[[The Jurist]] |access-date=May 22, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502051556/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2007/05/ex-guantanamo-lawyers-sue-for.php |archive-date=May 2, 2008 }}</ref><ref name=CcrVBushDocket>{{cite web|url=http://ccrjustice.org/ourcases/current-cases/ccr-v.-bush|title=CCR v. Bush|publisher=[[Center for Constitutional Rights]]|access-date=June 15, 2009|archive-date=June 17, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617195549/http://ccrjustice.org/ourcases/current-cases/ccr-v.-bush|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
In the August 2006 case ''[[ACLU v. NSA]]'', [[U.S. District Court]] Judge [[Anna Diggs Taylor]] concluded that NSA's warrantless surveillance program was both illegal and unconstitutional. On July 6, 2007, the [[6th Circuit Court of Appeals]] vacated the decision because the ACLU lacked standing to bring the suit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/nytimes/docs/nsa/aclunsa70607opn.pdf |title=6th Circuit Court of Appeals Decision |access-date=October 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053024/http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/nytimes/docs/nsa/aclunsa70607opn.pdf |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> | In the August 2006 case ''[[ACLU v. NSA]]'', [[U.S. District Court]] Judge [[Anna Diggs Taylor]] concluded that NSA's warrantless surveillance program was both illegal and unconstitutional. On July 6, 2007, the [[6th Circuit Court of Appeals]] vacated the decision because the ACLU lacked standing to bring the suit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/nytimes/docs/nsa/aclunsa70607opn.pdf |title=6th Circuit Court of Appeals Decision |access-date=October 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053024/http://fl1.findlaw.com/news.findlaw.com/nytimes/docs/nsa/aclunsa70607opn.pdf |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> | ||
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=== Section 215 metadata collection === | === Section 215 metadata collection === | ||
On April 25, 2013, the NSA obtained a court order requiring [[Verizon]]'s Business Network Services to provide [[metadata]] on all calls in its system to the NSA "on an ongoing daily basis" for three months, as reported by '' | On April 25, 2013, the NSA obtained a court order requiring [[Verizon]]'s Business Network Services to provide [[metadata]] on all calls in its system to the NSA "on an ongoing daily basis" for three months, as reported by ''The Guardian'' on June 6, 2013. This information includes "the numbers of both parties on a call ... location data, call duration, unique identifiers, and the time and duration of all calls" but not "[t]he contents of the conversation itself". The order relies on the so-called "business records" provision of the Patriot Act.<ref>{{cite news|author=Glenn Greenwald|title=Revealed: NSA collecting phone records of millions of Americans daily|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order|access-date=June 6, 2013|location=London|work=The Guardian|date=June 6, 2013|author-link=Glenn Greenwald|archive-date=October 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012153115/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NYTimes2013-06-05>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/06/us/us-secretly-collecting-logs-of-business-calls.html| title = U.S. Is Secretly Collecting Records of Verizon Calls| newspaper = The New York Times| date = 2013-06-05| author = [[Charlie Savage (author)|Charlie Savage]], Edward Wyatt| access-date = 2024-06-07| archive-date = 2024-05-12| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240512131030/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/06/us/us-secretly-collecting-logs-of-business-calls.html| url-status = live}}</ref> | ||
In August 2013, following the Snowden leaks, new details about the NSA's data mining activity were revealed. Reportedly, the majority of emails into or out of the United States are captured at "selected communications links" and automatically analyzed for keywords or other "selectors". Emails that do not match are deleted.<ref name="SavageBroaderSifting">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/08/us/broader-sifting-of-data-abroad-is-seen-by-nsa.html|title=N.S.A. Said to Search Content of Messages to and From U.S|author=Savage, Charlie|date=August 8, 2013|access-date=August 13, 2013|work= | In August 2013, following the Snowden leaks, new details about the NSA's data mining activity were revealed. Reportedly, the majority of emails into or out of the United States are captured at "selected communications links" and automatically analyzed for keywords or other "selectors". Emails that do not match are deleted.<ref name="SavageBroaderSifting">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/08/us/broader-sifting-of-data-abroad-is-seen-by-nsa.html|title=N.S.A. Said to Search Content of Messages to and From U.S|author=Savage, Charlie|date=August 8, 2013|access-date=August 13, 2013|work=The New York Times|author-link=Charlie Savage (author)|archive-date=August 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813023342/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/08/us/broader-sifting-of-data-abroad-is-seen-by-nsa.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
The utility of such a massive metadata collection in preventing terrorist attacks is disputed. Many studies reveal the dragnet-like system to be ineffective. One such report, released by the [[New America Foundation]] concluded that after an analysis of 225 terrorism cases, the NSA "had no discernible impact on preventing acts of terrorism."<ref name="washingtonpost2014">Nakashima, Ellen. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140113192921/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-phone-record-collection-does-little-to-prevent-terrorist-attacks-group-says/2014/01/12/8aa860aa-77dd-11e3-8963-b4b654bcc9b2_story.html "NSA phone record collection does little to prevent terrorist attacks, the group says"], ''The Washington Post'', January 12, 2014</ref> | The utility of such a massive metadata collection in preventing terrorist attacks is disputed. Many studies reveal the dragnet-like system to be ineffective. One such report, released by the [[New America Foundation]] concluded that after an analysis of 225 terrorism cases, the NSA "had no discernible impact on preventing acts of terrorism."<ref name="washingtonpost2014">Nakashima, Ellen. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140113192921/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-phone-record-collection-does-little-to-prevent-terrorist-attacks-group-says/2014/01/12/8aa860aa-77dd-11e3-8963-b4b654bcc9b2_story.html "NSA phone record collection does little to prevent terrorist attacks, the group says"], ''The Washington Post'', January 12, 2014</ref> | ||
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In addition to doubts about its effectiveness, many people argue that the collection of metadata is an unconstitutional invasion of privacy. {{As of|2015}}, the collection process remained legal and grounded in the ruling from ''[[Smith v. Maryland]]'' (1979). A prominent opponent of the data collection and its legality is [[U.S. District Judge]] [[Richard J. Leon]], who issued a report in 2013<ref>[https://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/world/federal-judge-rules-nsa-program-is-likely-unconstitutional/668/ Federal judge rules NSA program is likely unconstitutional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830105413/https://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/world/federal-judge-rules-nsa-program-is-likely-unconstitutional/668/ |date=2017-08-30 }}, ''The Washington Post'', December 16, 2013</ref> in which he stated: "I cannot imagine a more 'indiscriminate' and 'arbitrary invasion' than this systematic and high tech collection and retention of personal data on virtually every single citizen for purposes of querying and analyzing it without prior judicial approval...Surely, such a program infringes on 'that degree of privacy' that the founders enshrined in the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]]". | In addition to doubts about its effectiveness, many people argue that the collection of metadata is an unconstitutional invasion of privacy. {{As of|2015}}, the collection process remained legal and grounded in the ruling from ''[[Smith v. Maryland]]'' (1979). A prominent opponent of the data collection and its legality is [[U.S. District Judge]] [[Richard J. Leon]], who issued a report in 2013<ref>[https://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/world/federal-judge-rules-nsa-program-is-likely-unconstitutional/668/ Federal judge rules NSA program is likely unconstitutional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830105413/https://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/world/federal-judge-rules-nsa-program-is-likely-unconstitutional/668/ |date=2017-08-30 }}, ''The Washington Post'', December 16, 2013</ref> in which he stated: "I cannot imagine a more 'indiscriminate' and 'arbitrary invasion' than this systematic and high tech collection and retention of personal data on virtually every single citizen for purposes of querying and analyzing it without prior judicial approval...Surely, such a program infringes on 'that degree of privacy' that the founders enshrined in the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]]". | ||
As of May 7, 2015, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled that the interpretation of Section 215 of the Patriot Act was wrong and that the NSA program that has been collecting Americans' phone records in bulk is illegal.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-nsa-went-too-far/2015/05/10/02635924-f5aa-11e4-b2f3-af5479e6bbdd_story.html New Rules for the National Security Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034649/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-nsa-went-too-far/2015/05/10/02635924-f5aa-11e4-b2f3-af5479e6bbdd_story.html |date=2023-03-26 }} by the editorial board on May 10, 2015</ref> It stated that Section 215 cannot be interpreted to allow government to collect national phone data and, as a result, expired on June 1, 2015. This ruling "is the first time a higher-level court in the regular judicial system has reviewed the NSA phone records program."<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/us/nsa-phone-records-collection-ruled-illegal-by-appeals-court.html| title = N.S.A. Collection of Bulk Call Data is Ruled Illegal| newspaper = | As of May 7, 2015, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled that the interpretation of Section 215 of the Patriot Act was wrong and that the NSA program that has been collecting Americans' phone records in bulk is illegal.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-nsa-went-too-far/2015/05/10/02635924-f5aa-11e4-b2f3-af5479e6bbdd_story.html New Rules for the National Security Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034649/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-nsa-went-too-far/2015/05/10/02635924-f5aa-11e4-b2f3-af5479e6bbdd_story.html |date=2023-03-26 }} by the editorial board on May 10, 2015</ref> It stated that Section 215 cannot be interpreted to allow government to collect national phone data and, as a result, expired on June 1, 2015. This ruling "is the first time a higher-level court in the regular judicial system has reviewed the NSA phone records program."<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/us/nsa-phone-records-collection-ruled-illegal-by-appeals-court.html| title = N.S.A. Collection of Bulk Call Data is Ruled Illegal| newspaper = The New York Times| date = 2015-05-07| author = [[Charlie Savage (author)|Charlie Savage]], Jonathan Weisman| access-date = 2024-06-07| archive-date = 2024-05-18| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240518131549/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/us/nsa-phone-records-collection-ruled-illegal-by-appeals-court.html| url-status = live}}</ref> The replacement law known as the [[USA Freedom Act]], which will enable the NSA to continue to have bulk access to citizens' metadata but with the stipulation that the data will now be stored by the companies themselves.<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07 /> This change will not have any effect on other Agency procedures—outside of metadata collection—which have purportedly challenged Americans' Fourth Amendment rights,<ref>{{cite web|title=Rand Paul vs. Washington DC on the USA Freedom Act|url=http://hotair.com/standing-athwarth-history-yelling-stop/2015/05/31/rand-paul-vs-washington-dc-on-the-usa-freedom-act/|website=HotAir|access-date=2015-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602001207/http://hotair.com/standing-athwarth-history-yelling-stop/2015/05/31/rand-paul-vs-washington-dc-on-the-usa-freedom-act/|archive-date=2015-06-02|url-status=dead}}</ref> including [[Upstream collection]], a mass of techniques used by the Agency to collect and store American's data/communications directly from the [[Internet backbone]].<ref name=slides>Top Level Telecommunications, [http://electrospaces.blogspot.com/2014/01/slides-about-nsas-upstream-collection.html Slides about NSA's Upstream collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108055615/https://electrospaces.blogspot.com/2014/01/slides-about-nsas-upstream-collection.html |date=2019-11-08 }}, January 17, 2014</ref> | ||
Under the Upstream collection program, the NSA paid telecommunications companies hundreds of millions of dollars in order to collect data from them.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-paying-us-companies-for-access-to-communications-networks/2013/08/29/5641a4b6-10c2-11e3-bdf6-e4fc677d94a1_story.html NSA paying U.S. companies for access to communications networks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328125616/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-paying-us-companies-for-access-to-communications-networks/2013/08/29/5641a4b6-10c2-11e3-bdf6-e4fc677d94a1_story.html |date=2014-03-28 }} by Craig Timberg and Barton Gellman on August 29, 2013</ref> While companies such as Google and Yahoo! claim that they do not provide "direct access" from their servers to the NSA unless under a court order,<ref>[http://www.digitalspy.com/tech/news/a487943/nsa-prism-controversy-apple-facebook-google-more-deny-knowledge.html#~pbKCS2AUgt8krC NSA PRISM Controversy: Apple, Facebook, Google, more deny knowledge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016020520/http://www.digitalspy.com/tech/news/a487943/nsa-prism-controversy-apple-facebook-google-more-deny-knowledge.html#~pbKCS2AUgt8krC |date=2015-10-16 }} by Digital Spy on June 6, 2013</ref> the NSA had access to emails, phone calls, and cellular data users.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/03/microsoft-facebook-google-yahoo-fisa-surveillance-requests Microsoft, Facebook, Google and Yahoo release US surveillance requests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175615/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/03/microsoft-facebook-google-yahoo-fisa-surveillance-requests |date=2017-01-06 }} by Spencer Ackerman and Dominic Rushe on February 3, 2014</ref> Under this new ruling, telecommunications companies maintain bulk user metadata on their servers for at least 18 months, to be provided upon request to the NSA.<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07 /> This ruling made the mass storage of specific phone records at NSA datacenters illegal, but it did not rule on Section 215's constitutionality.<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07 /> | Under the Upstream collection program, the NSA paid telecommunications companies hundreds of millions of dollars in order to collect data from them.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-paying-us-companies-for-access-to-communications-networks/2013/08/29/5641a4b6-10c2-11e3-bdf6-e4fc677d94a1_story.html NSA paying U.S. companies for access to communications networks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328125616/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-paying-us-companies-for-access-to-communications-networks/2013/08/29/5641a4b6-10c2-11e3-bdf6-e4fc677d94a1_story.html |date=2014-03-28 }} by Craig Timberg and Barton Gellman on August 29, 2013</ref> While companies such as Google and Yahoo! claim that they do not provide "direct access" from their servers to the NSA unless under a court order,<ref>[http://www.digitalspy.com/tech/news/a487943/nsa-prism-controversy-apple-facebook-google-more-deny-knowledge.html#~pbKCS2AUgt8krC NSA PRISM Controversy: Apple, Facebook, Google, more deny knowledge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016020520/http://www.digitalspy.com/tech/news/a487943/nsa-prism-controversy-apple-facebook-google-more-deny-knowledge.html#~pbKCS2AUgt8krC |date=2015-10-16 }} by Digital Spy on June 6, 2013</ref> the NSA had access to emails, phone calls, and cellular data users.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/03/microsoft-facebook-google-yahoo-fisa-surveillance-requests Microsoft, Facebook, Google and Yahoo release US surveillance requests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175615/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/03/microsoft-facebook-google-yahoo-fisa-surveillance-requests |date=2017-01-06 }} by Spencer Ackerman and Dominic Rushe on February 3, 2014</ref> Under this new ruling, telecommunications companies maintain bulk user metadata on their servers for at least 18 months, to be provided upon request to the NSA.<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07 /> This ruling made the mass storage of specific phone records at NSA datacenters illegal, but it did not rule on Section 215's constitutionality.<ref name=NYTimes2015-05-07 /> | ||
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The U.S. government has aggressively sought to dismiss and challenge [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] cases raised against it, and has granted retroactive immunity to ISPs and telecoms participating in domestic surveillance.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/security/2008/02/democrats-fail-to-block-telecom-immunity-provision/ |title=Senate caves, votes to give telecoms retroactive immunity |website=Ars Technica |date=February 13, 2008 |access-date=September 16, 2013 |archive-date=July 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708072335/https://arstechnica.com/security/2008/02/democrats-fail-to-block-telecom-immunity-provision/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://progressive.org/mag/wx071008.html |title=Forget Retroactive Immunity, FISA Bill is also about Prospective Immunity |publisher=[[The Progressive]] |date=July 10, 2008 |access-date=September 16, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918200841/http://progressive.org/mag/wx071008.html |archive-date=September 18, 2013 }}</ref> | The U.S. government has aggressively sought to dismiss and challenge [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] cases raised against it, and has granted retroactive immunity to ISPs and telecoms participating in domestic surveillance.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/security/2008/02/democrats-fail-to-block-telecom-immunity-provision/ |title=Senate caves, votes to give telecoms retroactive immunity |website=Ars Technica |date=February 13, 2008 |access-date=September 16, 2013 |archive-date=July 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708072335/https://arstechnica.com/security/2008/02/democrats-fail-to-block-telecom-immunity-provision/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://progressive.org/mag/wx071008.html |title=Forget Retroactive Immunity, FISA Bill is also about Prospective Immunity |publisher=[[The Progressive]] |date=July 10, 2008 |access-date=September 16, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918200841/http://progressive.org/mag/wx071008.html |archive-date=September 18, 2013 }}</ref> | ||
The U.S. military has acknowledged blocking access to parts of ''The Guardian'' website for thousands of defense personnel across the country,<ref>[http://www.montereyherald.com/local/ci_23554739/restricted-web-access-guardian-is-army-wide-officials "Restricted Web access to the Guardian is Armywide, say officials"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020150616/http://www.montereyherald.com/local/ci_23554739/restricted-web-access-guardian-is-army-wide-officials |date=2014-10-20 }}, Philipp Molnar, ''Monterey Herald'', June 27, 2013. Retrieved October 15, 2014.</ref><ref name="guardarmy">[[Spencer Ackerman|Ackerman, Spencer]]; Roberts, Dan (June 28, 2013). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/28/us-army-blocks-guardian-website-access "US Army Blocks Access to Guardian Website to Preserve 'Network Hygiene'—Military Admits to Filtering Reports and Content Relating to Government Surveillance Programs for Thousands of Personnel"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103143200/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/28/us-army-blocks-guardian-website-access |date=2017-01-03 }}. '' | The U.S. military has acknowledged blocking access to parts of ''The Guardian'' website for thousands of defense personnel across the country,<ref>[http://www.montereyherald.com/local/ci_23554739/restricted-web-access-guardian-is-army-wide-officials "Restricted Web access to the Guardian is Armywide, say officials"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020150616/http://www.montereyherald.com/local/ci_23554739/restricted-web-access-guardian-is-army-wide-officials |date=2014-10-20 }}, Philipp Molnar, ''Monterey Herald'', June 27, 2013. Retrieved October 15, 2014.</ref><ref name="guardarmy">[[Spencer Ackerman|Ackerman, Spencer]]; Roberts, Dan (June 28, 2013). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/28/us-army-blocks-guardian-website-access "US Army Blocks Access to Guardian Website to Preserve 'Network Hygiene'—Military Admits to Filtering Reports and Content Relating to Government Surveillance Programs for Thousands of Personnel"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103143200/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/28/us-army-blocks-guardian-website-access |date=2017-01-03 }}. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved June 30, 2013.</ref> and blocking the entire ''Guardian'' website for personnel stationed throughout Afghanistan, the Middle East, and South Asia.<ref name="guardmil">{{cite news|last=Ackerman|first=Spencer|title=US military blocks entire Guardian website for troops stationed abroad|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/01/us-military-blocks-guardian-troops|newspaper=The Guardian|date=July 1, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2024|archive-date=February 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202141818/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/01/us-military-blocks-guardian-troops|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
An October 2014 United Nations report condemned mass surveillance by the United States and other countries as violating multiple international treaties and conventions that guarantee core privacy rights.<ref>{{cite web|last=Greenwald|first=Glenn|title=UN Report Finds Mass Surveillance Violates International Treaties and Privacy Rights|url=https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/10/15/un-investigator-report-condemns-mass-surveillance/|date=October 16, 2014|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=January 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103001936/https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/10/15/un-investigator-report-condemns-mass-surveillance/|url-status=dead}}</ref> | An October 2014 United Nations report condemned mass surveillance by the United States and other countries as violating multiple international treaties and conventions that guarantee core privacy rights.<ref>{{cite web|last=Greenwald|first=Glenn|title=UN Report Finds Mass Surveillance Violates International Treaties and Privacy Rights|url=https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/10/15/un-investigator-report-condemns-mass-surveillance/|date=October 16, 2014|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=January 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103001936/https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2014/10/15/un-investigator-report-condemns-mass-surveillance/|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
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== Notes == | == Notes == | ||
{{Reflist|refs= | {{Reflist|refs= | ||
<ref name=NYTimes2015-09-20>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/21/us/politics/george-w-bush-made-retroactive-nsa-fix-after-hospital-room-showdown.html?_r=1| title = George W. Bush Made Retroactive N.S.A. 'Fix' After Hospital Room Showdown| newspaper = | <ref name=NYTimes2015-09-20>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/21/us/politics/george-w-bush-made-retroactive-nsa-fix-after-hospital-room-showdown.html?_r=1| title = George W. Bush Made Retroactive N.S.A. 'Fix' After Hospital Room Showdown| newspaper = The New York Times| date = 2015-09-20| author = Charlie Savage| author-link = Charlie Savage (author)| access-date = 2024-06-07| archive-date = 2024-05-12| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240512124131/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/21/us/politics/george-w-bush-made-retroactive-nsa-fix-after-hospital-room-showdown.html?_r=1| url-status = live}}</ref> | ||
}} | }} | ||
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** [https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2013-114-doc1.pdf Mandatory Declassification Review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512130150/https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2013-114-doc1.pdf |date=2024-05-12 }} – [[Interagency Security Classification Appeals Panel]] | ** [https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2013-114-doc1.pdf Mandatory Declassification Review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512130150/https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2013-114-doc1.pdf |date=2024-05-12 }} – [[Interagency Security Classification Appeals Panel]] | ||
* [[James Bamford|Bamford, James]], ''[[The Puzzle Palace (book)|The Puzzle Palace]]'', Penguin Books, 1982, {{ISBN|0-14-006748-5}}. | * [[James Bamford|Bamford, James]], ''[[The Puzzle Palace (book)|The Puzzle Palace]]'', Penguin Books, 1982, {{ISBN|0-14-006748-5}}. | ||
* [[James Bamford|Bamford, James]], "[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/25/weekinreview/25bamford.html The Agency That Could Be Big Brother] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302033537/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/25/weekinreview/25bamford.html |date=2015-03-02 }}", '' | * [[James Bamford|Bamford, James]], "[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/25/weekinreview/25bamford.html The Agency That Could Be Big Brother] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302033537/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/25/weekinreview/25bamford.html |date=2015-03-02 }}", ''The New York Times'', December 25, 2005. | ||
* Bamford, James, ''[[The Shadow Factory]]'', Anchor Books, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-307-27939-2}}. | * Bamford, James, ''[[The Shadow Factory]]'', Anchor Books, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-307-27939-2}}. | ||
* Budiansky, Stephen (2017). ''Code Warriors: NSA's Codebreakers and the Secret Intelligence War Against the Soviet Union''. {{ISBN|978-080-417-097-0}}. | * Budiansky, Stephen (2017). ''Code Warriors: NSA's Codebreakers and the Secret Intelligence War Against the Soviet Union''. {{ISBN|978-080-417-097-0}}. | ||
* {{cite book|last=Hanyok|first=Robert J.|year=2002|url=https://fas.org/irp/nsa/spartans/index.html|title=Spartans in Darkness: American SIGINT and the Indochina War, 1945–1975|publisher=National Security Agency|access-date=November 16, 2008|archive-date=January 11, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111205047/http://www.fas.org/irp/nsa/spartans/index.html|url-status=live}} | * {{cite book|last=Hanyok|first=Robert J.|year=2002|url=https://fas.org/irp/nsa/spartans/index.html|title=Spartans in Darkness: American SIGINT and the Indochina War, 1945–1975|publisher=National Security Agency|access-date=November 16, 2008|archive-date=January 11, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111205047/http://www.fas.org/irp/nsa/spartans/index.html|url-status=live}} | ||
* {{cite news | url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2013/06/18/obama-charlie-rose-program-nsa-surveillance/2433549/ | title=Obama: NSA surveillance programs are 'transparent' | newspaper= | * {{cite news | url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2013/06/18/obama-charlie-rose-program-nsa-surveillance/2433549/ | title=Obama: NSA surveillance programs are 'transparent' | newspaper=USA Today | date=June 18, 2013 | access-date=June 18, 2013 | author=Jackson, David | archive-date=June 18, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618124016/http://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2013/06/18/obama-charlie-rose-program-nsa-surveillance/2433549/ | url-status=live }} | ||
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Thomas R.|year=2008|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/|title=American Cryptology during the Cold War|publisher=National Security Agency: Center for Cryptological History|access-date=November 16, 2008|archive-date=December 24, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224044110/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/|url-status=live}} | * {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Thomas R.|year=2008|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/|title=American Cryptology during the Cold War|publisher=National Security Agency: Center for Cryptological History|access-date=November 16, 2008|archive-date=December 24, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224044110/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/|url-status=live}} | ||
* Radden Keefe, Patrick, ''Chatter: Dispatches from the Secret World of Global Eavesdropping'', Random House, {{ISBN|1-4000-6034-6}}. | * Radden Keefe, Patrick, ''Chatter: Dispatches from the Secret World of Global Eavesdropping'', Random House, {{ISBN|1-4000-6034-6}}. | ||
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* Tully, Andrew, ''The Super Spies: More Secret, More Powerful than the CIA'', 1969, LC 71080912. | * Tully, Andrew, ''The Super Spies: More Secret, More Powerful than the CIA'', 1969, LC 71080912. | ||
* [[Church Committee]], ''Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans: 1976 US Senate Report on Illegal Wiretaps and Domestic Spying by the FBI, CIA and NSA'', Red and Black Publishers (May 1, 2008). | * [[Church Committee]], ''Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans: 1976 US Senate Report on Illegal Wiretaps and Domestic Spying by the FBI, CIA and NSA'', Red and Black Publishers (May 1, 2008). | ||
* "[http://www.cnn.com/video/data/2.0/video/us/2013/06/07/lawrence-nsa-no-such-agency.cnn.html Just what is the NSA?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022062022/http://www.cnn.com/video/data/2.0/video/us/2013/06/07/lawrence-nsa-no-such-agency.cnn.html |date=2014-10-22 }}" (video). | * "[http://www.cnn.com/video/data/2.0/video/us/2013/06/07/lawrence-nsa-no-such-agency.cnn.html Just what is the NSA?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022062022/http://www.cnn.com/video/data/2.0/video/us/2013/06/07/lawrence-nsa-no-such-agency.cnn.html |date=2014-10-22 }}" (video). CNN. June 7, 2013. | ||
* {{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/the-nsa-files|title=The NSA Files|newspaper= | * {{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/the-nsa-files|title=The NSA Files|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=June 8, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2024|archive-date=October 3, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003122712/http://www.theguardian.com/world/the-nsa-files|url-status=live}} | ||
* "[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/ National Security Agency Releases History of Cold War Intelligence Activities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224044110/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/ |date=2008-12-24 }}." [[George Washington University]]. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 260. Posted November 14, 2008. | * "[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/ National Security Agency Releases History of Cold War Intelligence Activities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224044110/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/ |date=2008-12-24 }}." [[George Washington University]]. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 260. Posted November 14, 2008. | ||
* {{cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/snowden-sidtoday/?orderBy=publishedTime&orderDirection=desc#archive|title=The Snowden Archive|website=[[The Intercept]]|location=London|date=June 8, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2024|archive-date=May 12, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512131635/https://theintercept.com/snowden-sidtoday/?orderBy=publishedTime&orderDirection=desc#archive|url-status=live}} | * {{cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/snowden-sidtoday/?orderBy=publishedTime&orderDirection=desc#archive|title=The Snowden Archive|website=[[The Intercept]]|location=London|date=June 8, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2024|archive-date=May 12, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512131635/https://theintercept.com/snowden-sidtoday/?orderBy=publishedTime&orderDirection=desc#archive|url-status=live}} | ||