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Alabama: Difference between revisions
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African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregated]], but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I5JJCAAAQBAJ&q=alabama+brown+v.+board&pg=PT94 |title=Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement |last=Klarman |first=Michael J. |date=July 31, 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190294588 |access-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-date=February 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220154843/https://books.google.com/books?id=I5JJCAAAQBAJ&q=alabama+brown+v.+board&pg=PT94 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/september_2_1963_gov._wallace_halts_integration/|title=September 2, 1963: Gov. Wallace halts integration|work=ABA Journal|access-date=May 26, 2018|author=Mark Curriden|archive-date=May 27, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527023651/http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/september_2_1963_gov._wallace_halts_integration/|url-status=live}}</ref> The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] (1955–1956), [[Freedom Rides]] in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/s-121 |title=Civil Rights Movement in Alabama Feature |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |access-date=May 26, 2018 |archive-date=May 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527201747/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/s-121 |url-status=live}}</ref> These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress.<ref name="cra64">{{cite web |url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 |publisher=Finduslaw.com |access-date=October 24, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021141154/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archive-date=October 21, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/alabama-birthplace-of-voting-rights-act-once-again-gutting-voting-rights/ |title=Alabama, Birthplace of the Voting Rights Act, Is Once Again Gutting Voting Rights |last=Berman |first=Ari |date=October 1, 2015 |work=The Nation |access-date=May 26, 2018 |issn=0027-8378 |archive-date=May 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527023747/https://www.thenation.com/article/alabama-birthplace-of-voting-rights-act-once-again-gutting-voting-rights/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregated]], but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I5JJCAAAQBAJ&q=alabama+brown+v.+board&pg=PT94 |title=Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement |last=Klarman |first=Michael J. |date=July 31, 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190294588 |access-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-date=February 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220154843/https://books.google.com/books?id=I5JJCAAAQBAJ&q=alabama+brown+v.+board&pg=PT94 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/september_2_1963_gov._wallace_halts_integration/|title=September 2, 1963: Gov. Wallace halts integration|work=ABA Journal|access-date=May 26, 2018|author=Mark Curriden|archive-date=May 27, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527023651/http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/september_2_1963_gov._wallace_halts_integration/|url-status=live}}</ref> The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] (1955–1956), [[Freedom Rides]] in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/s-121 |title=Civil Rights Movement in Alabama Feature |website=Encyclopedia of Alabama |access-date=May 26, 2018 |archive-date=May 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527201747/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/s-121 |url-status=live}}</ref> These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress.<ref name="cra64">{{cite web |url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 |publisher=Finduslaw.com |access-date=October 24, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021141154/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archive-date=October 21, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/alabama-birthplace-of-voting-rights-act-once-again-gutting-voting-rights/ |title=Alabama, Birthplace of the Voting Rights Act, Is Once Again Gutting Voting Rights |last=Berman |first=Ari |date=October 1, 2015 |work=The Nation |access-date=May 26, 2018 |issn=0027-8378 |archive-date=May 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527023747/https://www.thenation.com/article/alabama-birthplace-of-voting-rights-act-once-again-gutting-voting-rights/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court.<ref name="USDOJ">{{cite web |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221054512/http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archive-date=February 21, 2007 |title=Voting Rights |access-date=September 23, 2006 |date=January 9, 2002 |website=Civil Rights: Law and History |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to '' | Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court.<ref name="USDOJ">{{cite web |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221054512/http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archive-date=February 21, 2007 |title=Voting Rights |access-date=September 23, 2006 |date=January 9, 2002 |website=Civil Rights: Law and History |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to ''The New York Times'', by 2017, many of Alabama's African Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the Black Belt region across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include Dallas, [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes]], [[Marengo County, Alabama|Marengo]] and [[Perry County, Alabama|Perry]]."<ref name="NYT_2017">{{cite news |title=Alabama Senate Race Between Roy Moore and Doug Jones Ends With More Controversy |first1=Jonathan |last1=Martin |first2=Alan |last2=Blinder |date=December 12, 2017}}</ref> | ||
In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years.<ref name="pjhwpa" /> Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. | In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years.<ref name="pjhwpa" /> Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. | ||
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The [[judiciary]] is responsible for interpreting the [[Constitution of Alabama]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The [[State supreme court|state's highest court]] is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized.<ref name="AJS">[http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL Judicial Selection in the States: Alabama] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006162358/http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL |date=October 6, 2014}}, American Judicature Society.</ref> The current [[chief justice]] of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Tom Parker (judge)|Tom Parker]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate [[appellate court]]s, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four [[trial court]]s: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts.<ref name="AJS"/> | The [[judiciary]] is responsible for interpreting the [[Constitution of Alabama]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The [[State supreme court|state's highest court]] is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized.<ref name="AJS">[http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL Judicial Selection in the States: Alabama] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006162358/http://www.judicialselection.us/judicial_selection/index.cfm?state=AL |date=October 6, 2014}}, American Judicature Society.</ref> The current [[chief justice]] of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Tom Parker (judge)|Tom Parker]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate [[appellate court]]s, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four [[trial court]]s: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts.<ref name="AJS"/> | ||
Alabama has the death penalty with authorized methods of execution that include the [[electric chair]] and the [[gas chamber]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/executions/methods-of-execution |title=Methods of Execution |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=July 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701043600/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/methods-execution |url-status=live}}</ref> Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions.<ref>[{{cite web |title=Questions of Death Row Justice For Poor People in Alabama |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/01/us/questions-of-death-row-justice-for-poor-people-in-alabama.html |website= | Alabama has the death penalty with authorized methods of execution that include the [[electric chair]] and the [[gas chamber]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/executions/methods-of-execution |title=Methods of Execution |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=July 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701043600/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/methods-execution |url-status=live}}</ref> Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions.<ref>[{{cite web |title=Questions of Death Row Justice For Poor People in Alabama |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/01/us/questions-of-death-row-justice-for-poor-people-in-alabama.html |website=The New York Times |date=March 1, 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326035332/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/01/us/questions-of-death-row-justice-for-poor-people-in-alabama.html |archive-date=March 26, 2023 |url-status=live |last1=Rimer |first1=Sara}}</ref> Alabama has the highest per capita [[Capital punishment in Alabama|death penalty rate]] in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does Texas, a state which has a population five times larger.<ref name="npr.org"/> However, executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/stories/state-execution-rates|title=State Execution Rates (through 2020)|website=Death Penalty Information Center|access-date=December 14, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207020714/https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/stories/state-execution-rates|url-status=live}}</ref> Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eji.org/us-supreme-court-reverses-alabama-death-penalty-case-christopher-floyd-racially-biased-jury-selection |title=Supreme Court Reverses Another Alabama Death Penalty Case |date=June 21, 2016 |website=EJI |access-date=August 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820093442/http://www.eji.org/us-supreme-court-reverses-alabama-death-penalty-case-christopher-floyd-racially-biased-jury-selection |archive-date=August 20, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> 24 convictions in death penalty cases.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of [[Life imprisonment|life imprisonment without parole]] that were voted unanimously by juries.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite news |author=Rebecca Buckwalter-Poza |url=https://www.npr.org/2014/07/25/335418230/with-judges-overriding-death-penalty-cases-alabama-is-an-outlier |title=With Judges Overriding Death Penalty Cases, Alabama Is An Outlier |newspaper=NPR |date=July 27, 2014 |access-date=July 21, 2016 |archive-date=July 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703220906/https://www.npr.org/2014/07/25/335418230/with-judges-overriding-death-penalty-cases-alabama-is-an-outlier |url-status=live}}</ref> This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al.com/news/birmingham/index.ssf/2017/04/post_317.html |title=Alabama Gov. Kay Ivey signs bill: Judges can no longer override juries in death penalty cases |website=Al.com |date=April 12, 2017 |access-date=December 13, 2017 |archive-date=December 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035444/http://www.al.com/news/birmingham/index.ssf/2017/04/post_317.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the [[Human Life Protection Act]], banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and [[incest]]. The law subjects doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/may/14/abortion-bill-alabama-passes-ban-six-weeks-us-no-exemptions-vote-latest |title=Alabama abortion ban: Republican senate passes most restrictive law in US |last=York |first=Erin Durkin Jessica Glenza in New |date=May 15, 2019 |work=The Guardian |access-date=May 15, 2019 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=May 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515023534/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/may/14/abortion-bill-alabama-passes-ban-six-weeks-us-no-exemptions-vote-latest |url-status=live}}</ref> The law was originally supposed to take effect the following November, but on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge [[Myron H. Thompson|Myron Thompson]] blocked the law from taking effect due to it being in conflict with the 1973 [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] case ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chandler |first1=Kim |title=Federal judge blocks Alabama's strict abortion ban |url=https://apnews.com/dae2aa0b0796432daa146bbc6128643b |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=November 9, 2019 |location=Montgomery |date=October 29, 2019 |archive-date=November 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108185459/https://apnews.com/dae2aa0b0796432daa146bbc6128643b |url-status=live}}</ref> On June 24, 2022, after the U.S. Supreme Court overturned ''Roe v. Wade'' in ''[[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization]]'', Judge Thompson lifted the injunction, allowing the law to go into effect.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com/waaytv.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/d/ad/dad08b38-f403-11ec-b63f-6308c50f258e/62b62b6dda8ef.pdf.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com/waaytv.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/d/ad/dad08b38-f403-11ec-b63f-6308c50f258e/62b62b6dda8ef.pdf.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |title=YASHICA ROBINSON vs STEVEN MARSHALL Court Docket |website=bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com}}</ref> | On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the [[Human Life Protection Act]], banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and [[incest]]. The law subjects doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/may/14/abortion-bill-alabama-passes-ban-six-weeks-us-no-exemptions-vote-latest |title=Alabama abortion ban: Republican senate passes most restrictive law in US |last=York |first=Erin Durkin Jessica Glenza in New |date=May 15, 2019 |work=The Guardian |access-date=May 15, 2019 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=May 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515023534/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/may/14/abortion-bill-alabama-passes-ban-six-weeks-us-no-exemptions-vote-latest |url-status=live}}</ref> The law was originally supposed to take effect the following November, but on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge [[Myron H. Thompson|Myron Thompson]] blocked the law from taking effect due to it being in conflict with the 1973 [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] case ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chandler |first1=Kim |title=Federal judge blocks Alabama's strict abortion ban |url=https://apnews.com/dae2aa0b0796432daa146bbc6128643b |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=November 9, 2019 |location=Montgomery |date=October 29, 2019 |archive-date=November 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108185459/https://apnews.com/dae2aa0b0796432daa146bbc6128643b |url-status=live}}</ref> On June 24, 2022, after the U.S. Supreme Court overturned ''Roe v. Wade'' in ''[[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization]]'', Judge Thompson lifted the injunction, allowing the law to go into effect.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com/waaytv.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/d/ad/dad08b38-f403-11ec-b63f-6308c50f258e/62b62b6dda8ef.pdf.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com/waaytv.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/d/ad/dad08b38-f403-11ec-b63f-6308c50f258e/62b62b6dda8ef.pdf.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |title=YASHICA ROBINSON vs STEVEN MARSHALL Court Docket |website=bloximages.newyork1.vip.townnews.com}}</ref> | ||