Nuclear Regulatory Commission

From USApedia
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Type: Regulatory Commissions
Parent organization:
Employees: 2900
Executive: Chair
Budget: $9.949 million (Proposed FY 2024)
Address: 11555 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
Website: https://www.nrc.gov/
Creation Legislation: Energy Reorganization Act of 1974
Wikipedia: Nuclear Regulatory CommissionWikipedia Logo.png
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
This map created from a Cargo query (Purge)
Mission
To license and regulate the Nation's civilian use of radioactive materials to provide reasonable assurance of adequate protection of public health and safety, promote the common defense and security, and protect the environment.
Services

Reactor licensing; Materials safety; Waste management; Nuclear security; Research; Enforcement

Regulations

10 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10 - Energy); Nuclear Material Safety; Nuclear Reactor Regulation; Incident Response

Nuclear Regulatory Commission
File:Seal of the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission.png
File:US-NuclearRegulatoryCommission-Logo.svg
Agency Overview
Formed January 19, 1975; 50 years ago (1975-01-19)
Preceding agency Atomic Energy Commission
Headquarters North Bethesda, Maryland
Employees 2,868 (2021)[1]
Annual budget $879 million (2021) [1]
Agency Executive Christopher T. Hanson, Chairman
Website
nrc.gov

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is an independent agency of the United States government tasked with protecting public health and safety related to nuclear energy. Established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, the NRC began operations on January 19, 1975, as one of two successor agencies to the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Its functions include overseeing reactor safety and security, administering reactor licensing and renewal, licensing radioactive materials, radionuclide safety, and managing the storage, security, recycling, and disposal of spent fuel.

History

File:NRC Briefing on Human Capital and EEO (51245895192).jpg
The commission meets in 2021

Prior to 1975 the Atomic Energy Commission was in charge of matters regarding radionuclides. The AEC was dissolved, because it was perceived as unduly favoring the industry it was charged with regulating.[2] The NRC was formed as an independent commission to oversee nuclear energy matters, oversight of nuclear medicine, and nuclear safety and security.

The U.S. AEC became the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) in 1975, responsible for development and oversight of nuclear weapons. Research and promotion of civil uses of radioactive materials, such as for nuclear non-destructive testing, nuclear medicine, and nuclear power, was split into the Office of Nuclear Energy, Science & Technology within ERDA by the same act. In 1977, ERDA became the United States Department of Energy (DOE). In 2000, the National Nuclear Security Administration was created as a subcomponent of DOE, responsible for nuclear weapons.[3]

Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011, the NRC developed a guidance strategy known as "Diverse and Flexible Coping Strategies (FLEX)" which requires licensee nuclear power plants to account for beyond-design-basis external events (seismic, flooding, high-winds, etc.) that are most impactful to reactor safety through loss of power and loss of ultimate heat sink. FLEX Strategies have been implemented at all operating nuclear power plants in the United States.[4]

The origins and development of NRC regulatory processes and policies are explained in five volumes of history published by the University of California Press. These are:[3]

  • Controlling the Atom: The Beginnings of Nuclear Regulation 1946–1962 (1984).
  • Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1963–1971 (1992).
  • Permissible Dose: A History of Radiation Protection in the Twentieth Century (2000)
  • Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (2004)
  • The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States (2009).

The NRC has produced a booklet, A Short History of Nuclear Regulation 1946–2009, which outlines key issues in NRC history.[5] Thomas Wellock, a former academic, is the NRC historian. Before joining the NRC, Wellock wrote Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958–1978.[3]

Mission and commissioners

The NRC's mission is to regulate the nation's civilian use of byproduct, source, and special nuclear materials to ensure adequate protection of public health and safety, to promote the common defense and security, and to protect the environment. The NRC's regulatory mission covers three main areas[citation needed]:

  • Reactors – Commercial reactors for generating electric power and research and test reactors used for research, testing, and training
  • Materials – Uses of nuclear materials in medical, industrial, and academic settings and facilities that produce nuclear fuel
  • Waste – Transportation, storage, and disposal of nuclear materials and waste, and decommissioning of nuclear facilities from service.

The NRC is headed by five commissioners appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five-year terms. One of them is designated by the president to be the chairman and official spokesperson of the commission. The chairman is the principal executive officer of the NRC, who exercise all of the executive and administrative functions of the commission.

The current chairman is Christopher T. Hanson. President Biden designated Hanson as chairman of the NRC effective January 20, 2021.[6]

Current commissioners

The current commissioners as of September 24, 2024:[7]

Position Name Party Took office Term expires
Chair Christopher T. Hanson Democratic June 8, 2020 June 30, 2029
Member David A. Wright Republican May 30, 2018 June 30, 2025
Member Annie Caputo Republican August 9, 2022 June 30, 2026
Member Bradley Crowell Democratic August 26, 2022 June 30, 2027
Member Vacant June 30, 2028

Nominations

President Biden has nominated the following to fill a seat on the commission. They await Senate confirmation.[8]

Name Party Term expires Replacing
Matthew James Marzano Democratic June 30, 2028 Jeffrey Martin Baran

List of chairmen[9]

No. Name (chair) Term of office Appointed by
1 Bill Anders January 19, 1975 April 20, 1976 Gerald Ford
2 Marcus A. Rowden January 19, 1975 January 15, 1977
3 Joseph M. Hendrie March 3, 1977 December 7, 1979 Jimmy Carter
4 John F. Ahearne December 7, 1979 March 2, 1981
5 Nunzio J. Palladino July 1, 1981 June 30, 1986 Ronald Reagan
6 Lando W. Zech Jr. July 1, 1986 June 3, 1989
7 Kenneth Monroe Carr July 1, 1989 June 30, 1991 George H.W Bush
8 Ivan Selin July 1, 1991 June 30, 1995
9 Shirley Ann Jackson July 1, 1995 June 30, 1999 Bill Clinton
10 Richard Meserve October 29, 1999 March 31, 2003
11 Nils J. Diaz April 1, 2003 June 30, 2006 George W. Bush
12 Dale E. Klein July 1, 2006 May 13, 2009
13 Gregory Jaczko May 13, 2009 July 9, 2012 Barack Obama
14 Allison Macfarlane July 9, 2012 December 31, 2014
15 Stephen G. Burns[10] January 1, 2015 January 23, 2017
16 Kristine Svinicki[11] January 23, 2017 January 20, 2021 Donald Trump
17 Christopher T. Hanson[6] January 20, 2021 Incumbent Joe Biden

List of commissioners[12]

Commissioner Took office Left office
Marcus A. Rowden January 19, 1975 April 20, 1977
Edward A. Mason January 19, 1975 January 15, 1977
Victor Gilinsky January 19, 1975 June 30, 1984
Richard T. Kennedy January 19, 1975 June 30, 1980
Joseph Hendrie August 9, 1977 June 30, 1981
Peter A. Bradford August 15, 1977 March 12, 1982
John F. Ahearne July 31, 1978 June 30, 1983
Nunzio J. Palladiono July 1, 1981 June 30, 1986
Thomas M. Roberts August 3, 1981 June 30, 1990
James K. Asselstine May 17, 1982 June 30, 1987
Frederick M. Bernthal August 4, 1983 June 30, 1988
Lando W. Zech Jr. July 3, 1984 June 30, 1989
Kenneth Monroe Carr August 14, 1986 June 30, 1991
Kenneth C. Rogers August 7, 1987 June 30, 1997
James R. Curtiss October 20, 1988 June 30, 1993
Forrest J. Remick December 1, 1989 June 30, 1994
Ivan Selin July 1, 1991 June 30, 1995
E. Gail de Planque December 16, 1991 June 30, 1995
Shirley Ann Jackson May 2, 1995 June 30, 1999
Greta J. Dicus February 15, 1996 June 30, 2003
Nils J. Diaz August 23, 1996 June 30, 2006
Edward McGaffigan Jr. August 28, 1996 September 2, 2007
Jeffrey S. Merrifield October 23, 1998 June 30, 2007
Richard Meserve October 29, 1999 March 31, 2003
Gregory Jaczko January 21, 2005 July 9, 2012
Peter B. Lyons January 25, 2005 June 30, 2009
Dale E. Klein July 1, 2006 March 29, 2010
Kristine Svinicki March 28, 2008 January 20, 2021
George Apostolakis March 29, 2010 June 30, 2014
William D. Magwood IV March 29, 2010 August 31, 2014
William C. Ostendorff March 29, 2010 June 30, 2016
Allison Macfarlane July 9, 2012 December 31, 2014
Jeff Baran October 14, 2014 June 30, 2023
Stephen G. Burns November 4, 2014 April 30, 2019
Annie Caputo May 29, 2018 June 30, 2021
David A. Wright May 30, 2018 Present
Christopher T. Hanson June 8, 2020 Present
Annie Caputo August 9, 2022 Present
Bradley Crowell August 26, 2022 Present

Organization

File:NRC Organizational Chart (32234530897).jpg
NRC Organizational Chart in February 2019
File:NRC Headquarters Campus site in Rockville, Md. (7845755802).jpg
The three building that comprise NRC's North Bethesda campus, with North Bethesda station in the right bottom corner

The NRC consists of the commission on the one hand and offices of the executive director for Operations on the other.[13]

The commission is divided into two committees (Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards and Advisory Committee on the Medical Uses of Isotopes) and one Board, the Atomic Safety and Licensing Board Panel, as well as eight commission staff offices (Office of Commission Appellate Adjudication, Office of Congressional Affairs, Office of the General Counsel, Office of International Programs, Office of Public Affairs, Office of the Secretary, Office of the Chief Financial Officer, Office of the Executive Director for Operations).

Christopher T. Hanson is the chairman of the NRC.[14]

Operations offices

There are 14 Executive Director for Operations offices:

  1. Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards
  2. Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation
  3. Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research
  4. Office of Enforcement, which investigates reports by nuclear power whistleblowers, specifically the Allegations Program[15]
  5. Office of Investigations (Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
  6. Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response (Region I)
  7. Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response (Region II)
  8. Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response (Region III)
  9. Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response (Region IV)
  10. Office of the Chief Information Officer (Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
  11. Office of Administration (Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
  12. Office of the Chief Human Capital Officer (Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
  13. Office of Small Business and Civil Rights (Nuclear Regulatory Commission)

Of these operations offices, NRC's major program components are the first two offices mentioned above. NRC's proposed FY 2015 budget is $1,059.5 million, with 3,895.9 full-time equivalents (FTE), 90 percent of which is recovered by fees. This is an increase of $3.6 million, including 65.1 FTE, compared to FY 2014.[16]

Headquarters

NRC headquarters offices are located in unincorporated North Bethesda, Maryland (although the mailing address for two of the three main buildings in the complex list the city as Rockville, MD), and there are four regional offices.

Regions

Main article: Regions of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
File:Figure 2- Map of Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regions and 37 Agreement States (14450812744) (cropped).jpg
Map of the NRC regions

The NRC territory is broken down into four geographical regions; until the late 1990s, there was a Region V office in Walnut Creek, California which was absorbed into Region IV, and Region V was dissolved.

In these four regions NRC oversees the operation of US nuclear reactors, namely 94 power-producing reactors,[17] and 31 non-power-producing, or research and test reactors.[18] Oversight is done on several levels. For example:

  • Each power-producing reactor site has resident inspectors, who monitor day-to-day operations.
  • Numerous special inspection teams, with many different specialties, routinely conduct inspections at each site.

Recordkeeping system

NRC has a library, which also contains online document collections.[19] In 1984 it started an electronic repository called ADAMS, the Agencywide Documents Access and Management System,[20] for its public inspection reports, correspondence, and other technical documents written by NRC staff, contractors, and licensees. It was upgraded in October 2010 and is now web-based. Of documents from 1980 to 1999 only some have abstracts and/or full text; most are citations. Documents from before 1980 are available in paper or microfiche formats. Copies of these older documents or classified documents can be applied for with a FOIA request.

Training and accreditation

File:Agency headquarters Graphic.jpg
Commission headquarters

NRC conducts audits and training inspections, observes the National Nuclear Accrediting Board meetings, and nominates some members.

The 1980 Kemeny Commission's report[21] after the Three Mile Island accident recommended that the nuclear energy industry "set and police its own standards of excellence".[22] The nuclear industry founded the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) within 9 months to establish personnel training and qualification. The industry through INPO created the 'National Academy for Nuclear Training Program' either as early as 1980[23] or in September 1985 per the International Atomic Energy Agency.[24] INPO refers to NANT as "our National Academy for Nuclear Training" on its website.[25] NANT integrates and standardizes the training programs of INPO and US nuclear energy companies, offers training scholarships and interacts with the 'National Nuclear Accrediting Board'. This Board is closely related to the National Academy for Nuclear Training, not a government body, and referred to as independent by INPO,[25] the Nuclear Energy Institute, and nuclear utilities.[26] but not by the NRC, all of whom are represented on the board.

The 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act directed NRC in Section 306 to issue regulations or "other appropriate regulatory guidance" on training of nuclear plant personnel. Since the nuclear industry already had developed training and accreditation, NRC issued a policy statement in 1985, endorsing the INPO program. NRC has a memorandum of agreement with INPO and "monitors INPO activities by observing accreditation team visits and the monthly NNAB meetings".[27]

In 1993, NRC endorsed the industry's approach to training that had been used for nearly a decade through its 'Training Rule'.[28] In February 1994, NRC passed the 'Operator Requalification Rule' 59 FR 5938, Feb. 9, 1994,[29] allowing each nuclear power plant company to conduct the operator licensing renewal examination every six years, eliminating the requirement of NRC-administered written requalification examination.

In 1999, NRC issued a final rule on operator initial licensing examination,[30] that allows companies to prepare, proctor, and grade their own operator initial licensing examinations. Facilities can "upon written request" continue to have the examinations prepared and administered by NRC staff, but if a company volunteers to prepare the examination, NRC continues to approve and administer it.[31]

Since 2000 meetings between NRC and applicants or licensees have been open to the public.[32]

Prospective nuclear units

Main article: Nuclear renaissance in the United States

Between 2007 and 2009, 13 companies applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for construction and operating licenses to build 25 new nuclear power reactors in the United States. However, the case for widespread nuclear plant construction was eroded due to abundant natural gas supplies.[33][34] Many license applications for proposed new reactors were suspended or cancelled.[35][36] These will not be the cheapest energy options available, therefore not an attractive investment.[37][38][39] In 2013, four reactors were permanently closed: San Onofre 2 and 3 in California, Crystal River 3 in Florida, and Kewaunee in Wisconsin.[40][41] Vermont Yankee, in Vernon, was shut down on December 29, 2014. New York state eventually closed Indian Point Energy Center, in Buchanan, 30 miles from New York City, on April 30, 2021.[41]

In 2019 the NRC approved a second 20-year license extension for Turkey Point units 3 and 4, the first time NRC had extended licenses to 80 years total lifetime. Similar extensions for about 20 reactors are planned or intended, with more expected in the future. This will reduce demand for replacement new builds.[42]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "NRC at a glance". https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML2130/ML21300A283.pdf. 
  2. ↑ John Byrne and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers, p. 163.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 NRC (2013). "NRC history". NRC website. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/history.html#nrctoday. 
  4. ↑ "DIVERSE AND FLEXIBLE COPING STRATEGIES (FLEX) IMPLEMENTATION GUIDE". Nuclear Energy Institute. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1635/ML16354B421.pdf. 
  5. ↑ "NRC: A Short History of Nuclear Regulation, 1946–2009 (NUREG/BR-0175, Revision 2)" (in en). https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/brochures/br0175/. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Biden appoints new head of NRC". Nuclear Engineering International. 28 January 2021. https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsbiden-appoints-new-head-of-nrc-8476871. 
  7. ↑ "The Commission". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. November 6, 2023. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commfuncdesc.html. 
  8. ↑ "Quick Search Nuclear Regulatory Commission". Library of Congress. https://www.congress.gov/quick-search/nominations?wordsPhrases=Nuclear+Regulatory+Commission&wordVariants=on&congressGroups%5B0%5D=0&congresses%5B0%5D=118&nomCivil=on&nomOther=on&pnNumbers=&nomineeNames=&positions=&organizations=&stateTerritories%5B0%5D=any&nominationAction=&dates=datesReceivedInSenate&dateOperator=equal&startDate=&endDate=&dateIsOption=yesterday&qs_expand=false. 
  9. ↑ "Former NRC Chairman". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commission/former-commissioners/former-commissioners.html. 
  10. ↑ "Stephen G. Burns". https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commission/burns.html. 
  11. ↑ "Chairman Kristine L. Svinicki". https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commission/svinicki.html. 
  12. ↑ "Former NRC Commissioners". Nuclear Regulatory Commission. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commission/former-commissioners/former-commissioners.html. 
  13. ↑ "Organization & Functions". website. NRC. 27 November 2013. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization.html. 
  14. ↑ "NRC: The Commission". https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commfuncdesc.html. 
  15. ↑ "Allegations". NRC. 28 June 2013. https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/allegations-resp.html. 
  16. ↑ "Congressional Budget Justification: Fiscal Year 2015 (NUREG-1100, Volume 30)". NUREG-1100, Volume 30. NRC. March 2014. https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1100/v30/. 
  17. ↑ "Power Reactors". https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power.html. 
  18. ↑ "Map of Research and Test Reactor Sites". https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/map-nonpower-reactors.html. 
  19. ↑ "NRC Document Collections". website. NRC. https://forms.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/. 
  20. ↑ "FAQ About the Agencywide Documents Access and Management System". website. NRC. https://forms.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams/faq.html#1. 
  21. ↑ US Congress. House Committee on Science and Technology. Subcommittee on Energy Research and Production, US President's Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island (1980). "Kemeny Commission findings: Oversight". Committee Report. U.S. Govt. Print. Off.. pp. 40–129. https://books.google.com/books?id=d0jRAAAAMAAJ&q=Kemeny+Commission+Findings. 
  22. ↑ Lanouette, William (January 1980). "The Kemeny Commission Report". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 36 (1): 20–24. Bibcode 1980BuAtS..36a..20L. doi:10.1080/00963402.1980.11458680. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAoAAAAAMBAJ&q=Kemeny+Commission&pg=PA47. 
  23. ↑ NEI (2014). "National Academy for Nuclear Training Program". websute. Nuclear Energy Institute nei.org. http://www.nei.org/Careers-Education/Education-Resources/Resources-for-Teachers-and-Students/Scholarships-Internships-and-Fellowships/Industry-Scholarships-and-Fellowships-in-Nuclear-E/National-Academy-for-Nuclear-Training-Program. 
  24. ↑ Pate, Zack T. (Autumn 1986). "INPO's impact in the USA". International Atomic Energy Agency Bulletin (International Atomic Energy Agency): 60–62. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) (2012). "About us". website. Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO). https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc.html. 
  26. ↑ "PG&E Senior Vice President Appointed to National Nuclear Accrediting Board". website. Pacific Gas and Electric Corporation. 11 February 2013. http://www.pge.com/myhome/edusafety/systemworks/dcpp/newsmedia/pressrelease/archive/pge_senior_vice_president_appointed_to_national_nuclear_accrediting_board.shtml. "The independent National Nuclear Accrediting Board evaluates operator and technical training programs for nuclear plants throughout the industry, ensuring that accredited training programs meet the highest standards for excellence and incorporate best practices." 
  27. ↑ NRC (September 2001). "The United States of America National Report for the Convention on Nuclear Safety". NUREG-1650. NRC. pp. 11–15. https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1650/initial/. "In accordance with its memorandum of agreement with the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), the NRC monitors INPO accreditation activities as part of its assessment of the effectiveness of the industry's training programs. (The NRC also monitors the selected performance areas of its licensees as part of its assessment.) The NRC monitors INPO activities by observing accreditation team visits and the monthly National Nuclear Accrediting Board meetings." 
  28. ↑ NRc. "Related Documents and Other Resources". website. https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operator-licensing/related-documents.html. 
  29. ↑ NRC (February 9, 1994). "Renewal of Licenses and Requalification Requirements for Licensed Operators". Federal Register Volume 59, Number 27. Government Printing Office. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1994-02-09/html/94-2927.htm. 
  30. ↑ NRC (23 April 1999). "Initial Licensed Operator Examination Requirements". Federal Register Volume 64, Number 78. Government Printing Office. https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operator-licensing/op-licensing-files/v64n78p19868.txt. 
  31. ↑ NRC (23 April 1999). "Subpart E—Written Examinations and Operating Tests". NRC Regulations (10 CFR) PART 55—Operators licenses, § 55.40 Implementation.. NRC. https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part055/part055-0040.html. 
  32. ↑ NRC (20 September 2000). "Staff Meetings Open to the Public: Final Policy Statement". Federal Register Volume 65 Number 183. Government Printing Office. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2000-09-20/html/00-24161.htm. 
  33. ↑ "MIT: Cheap gas, not renewables, caused nuclear woes" (in en-US). https://www.utilitydive.com/news/mit-cheap-gas-not-renewables-caused-nuclear-woes/514310/. 
  34. ↑ Ayesha Rascoe (Feb 9, 2012). "U.S. approves first new nuclear plant in a generation". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nuclear-nrc-idUSTRE8182J720120209. 
  35. ↑ Eileen O'Grady. Entergy says nuclear remains costly Reuters, May 25, 2010.
  36. ↑ Terry Ganey. AmerenUE pulls plug on project Archived 2012-07-13 at the Wayback Machine Columbia Daily Tribune, April 23, 2009.
  37. ↑ "10 Reasons Not to Invest in Nuclear Energy" (in en). https://www.americanprogress.org/article/10-reasons-not-to-invest-in-nuclear-energy/. 
  38. ↑ Matthew Wald (June 11, 2013). "Atomic Power's Green Light or Red Flag". New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/12/business/energy-environment/nuclear-powers-future-may-hinge-on-georgia-project.html?ref=matthewlwald. 
  39. ↑ "Experts: Even higher costs and more headaches for nuclear power in 2012". MarketWatch. 28 December 2011. http://www.marketwatch.com/story/experts-even-higher-costs-and-more-headaches-ahead-for-nuclear-power-in-2012-2011-12-28. 
  40. ↑ Mark Cooper (18 June 2013). "Nuclear aging: Not so graceful". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. http://www.thebulletin.org/nuclear-aging-not-so-graceful. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Matthew Wald (June 14, 2013). "Nuclear Plants, Old and Uncompetitive, Are Closing Earlier Than Expected". New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/15/business/energy-environment/aging-nuclear-plants-are-closing-but-for-economic-reasons.html?ref=matthewlwald. 
  42. ↑ "Turkey Point licensed for 80 years of operation". World Nuclear News. 6 December 2019. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Turkey-Point-licensed-for-80-years-of-operation. 

External links

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