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 The election of [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1828 was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Kenneth |title=The Most Consequential Elections in History: Andrew Jackson and the Election of 1828 |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/08/20/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history-andrew-jackson-and-the-election-of-1828 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> [[Jacksonian democracy]] sought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor, [[Martin Van Buren]], became unpopular after the [[Panic of 1837]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bomboy |first1=Scott |title=Martin Van Buren's legacy: Expert politician, mediocre president |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/martin-van-burens-legacy-was-more-than-just-muttonchops-2/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=December 5, 2017}}</ref> and the death of [[William Henry Harrison]] and subsequent poor relations between [[John Tyler]] and Congress led to further weakening of the office.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freehling |first1=William |title=John Tyler: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/impact-and-legacy |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Including Van Buren, in the 24 years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Robert |title=Seven Presidents Served in the 20 Years Before the Civil War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidents-before-the-civil-war-1773447 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=ThoughtCo |date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> The Senate played an important role during this period, with the [[Great Triumvirate]] of [[Henry Clay]], [[Daniel Webster]], and [[John C. Calhoun]] playing key roles in shaping national policy in the 1830s and 1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in the 1850s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heidler |first1=David |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne |title=The Great Triumvirate |url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/the-great-triumvirate.html |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Winters |first1=Michael Sean |title='Do not trust in princes': the limits of politics |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/do-not-trust-princes-limits-politics |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Catholic Reporter |date=August 4, 2017}}</ref>
-[[Abraham Lincoln]]'s leadership during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] has led historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest presidents.{{efn-ua|Nearly all scholars rank Lincoln among the nation's top three presidents, with many placing him first. See [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States]] for a collection of survey results.}} The circumstances of the war and Republican domination of Congress made the office very powerful,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Frank |title=Lincoln's War Powers: Part Constitution, Part Trust |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/lincolns_war_powers_part_constitution_part_trust |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=American Bar Association |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Jennifer |title=Was Lincoln a Tyrant? |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/was-lincoln-a-tyrant/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=New York Times Opinionator |date=March 25, 2013}}</ref> and Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's assassination, his successor [[Andrew Johnson]] lost all political support<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varon |first1=Elizabeth |title=Andrew Johnson: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/campaigns-and-elections |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> and was nearly removed from office,<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC Staff |title=The man whose impeachment vote saved Andrew Johnson |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-man-whose-impeachment-vote-saved-andrew-johnson |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> with Congress remaining powerful during the two-term presidency of Civil War general [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. After the end of [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]], [[Grover Cleveland]] would eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war, running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900, [[William McKinley]] became the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872.
+Abraham Lincoln's leadership during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] has led historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest presidents.{{efn-ua|Nearly all scholars rank Lincoln among the nation's top three presidents, with many placing him first. See [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States]] for a collection of survey results.}} The circumstances of the war and Republican domination of Congress made the office very powerful,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Frank |title=Lincoln's War Powers: Part Constitution, Part Trust |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/lincolns_war_powers_part_constitution_part_trust |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=American Bar Association |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Jennifer |title=Was Lincoln a Tyrant? |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/was-lincoln-a-tyrant/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=New York Times Opinionator |date=March 25, 2013}}</ref> and Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's assassination, his successor [[Andrew Johnson]] lost all political support<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varon |first1=Elizabeth |title=Andrew Johnson: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/campaigns-and-elections |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> and was nearly removed from office,<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC Staff |title=The man whose impeachment vote saved Andrew Johnson |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-man-whose-impeachment-vote-saved-andrew-johnson |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> with Congress remaining powerful during the two-term presidency of Civil War general [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. After the end of [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]], [[Grover Cleveland]] would eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war, running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900, [[William McKinley]] became the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872.
 After McKinley's [[Assassination of William McKinley|assassination]] by [[Leon Czolgosz]] in 1901, [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became a dominant figure in American politics.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boissoneault |first1=Lorraine |title=The Debate Over Executive Orders Began With Teddy Roosevelt's Mad Passion for Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-theodore-roosevelts-executive-orders-reshaped-countryand-presidency-180962908/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine (website) |date=April 17, 2017}}</ref> Historians believe Roosevelt permanently changed the political system by strengthening the presidency,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Posner |first1=Eric |title=The inevitability of the imperial presidency |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/political-bookworm/post/the-inevitability-of-the-imperial-presidency/2011/04/22/AFTRBoPE_blog.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 22, 2011}}</ref> with some key accomplishments including breaking up trusts, conservationism, labor reforms, making personal character as important as the issues, and hand-picking his successor, [[William Howard Taft]]. The following decade, [[Woodrow Wilson]] led the nation to victory during World War I, although Wilson's proposal for the [[League of Nations]] was rejected by the Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Senate rejects League of Nations, Nov. 19, 2019 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/senate-rejects-league-of-nations-nov-19-1919-113006 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=November 19, 2014}}</ref>  [[Warren Harding]], while popular in office, would see his legacy tarnished by scandals, especially [[Teapot Dome]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robenalt |first1=James |title=If we weren't so obsessed with Warren G. Harding's sex life, we'd realize he was a pretty good president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/13/if-we-werent-so-obsessed-with-warren-g-hardings-sex-life-wed-realize-he-was-a-pretty-good-president/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> and [[Herbert Hoover]] quickly became very unpopular after failing to alleviate the [[Great Depression]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Richard Norton |last2=Walch |first2=Timothy |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |journal=Prologue Magazine |date=Summer 2004 |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |publisher=National Archives}}</ref>
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 === Commander-in-chief ===
-[[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb|[[Abraham Lincoln]], the 16th president who successfully preserved the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] during the American Civil War, with [[Union Army]] general [[George B. McClellan]] and soldiers at [[Antietam National Battlefield|Antietam]] on October 3, 1862]]
+[[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb|Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president who successfully preserved the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] during the American Civil War, with [[Union Army]] general [[George B. McClellan]] and soldiers at [[Antietam National Battlefield|Antietam]] on October 3, 1862]]
 One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role as [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|commander-in-chief]] of the [[United States Armed Forces]]. The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/commander-in-chief-clause-ramsey-and-vladeck/clause/25 |title=Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause |last1=Ramsey |first1=Michael |last2=Vladeck |first2=Stephen |website=National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required) |publisher=National Constitution Center |access-date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; [[Alexander Hamilton]] explained this in [[Federalist No. 69]]:{{blockquote|The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.{{nbsp}}... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces{{nbsp}}... while that [the power] of the [[Monarchy of Great Britain|British king]] extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which{{nbsp}}... would appertain to the legislature.<ref>[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]]. [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa69.htm ''The Federalist'' #69] (reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> [Emphasis in the original.]|sign=|source=}}
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 In the modern era, pursuant to the [[War Powers Resolution]], Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual.<ref name="miller-center">{{Cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |title=The National War Powers Commission Report |last1=Christopher |first1=James A. |last2=Baker, III |date=July 8, 2008 |publisher=The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126165009/http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |archive-date=November 26, 2010 |access-date=December 15, 2010 |quote=No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions. }}</ref> Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war,<ref name="tws12novef">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101712/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |title=The Law: The President's War Powers |date=June 1, 1970 |magazine=Time |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tws8nov102">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.}}</ref> but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s military move into [[Panama]] in 1903,<ref name="tws12novef" /> the [[Korean War]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> the [[Vietnam War]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> and the invasions of [[Grenada]] in 1983<ref name="tws8nov101">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.}}</ref> and [[Panama]] in 1989.<ref name="tws8nov100">{{Cite news |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1220.html#article |title=U.S. troops move in Panama in effort to seize Noriega; gunfire is heard in capital |date=December 20, 1990 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration.}}</ref>
-The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly.<ref>Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review]</ref> George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established [[civilian control of the military|military subordination under civilian authority]]. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], a conflict in [[Western Pennsylvania]] involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian [[Joseph Ellis]], this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though [[James Madison]] briefly took control of artillery units in [[Burning of Washington|defense of Washington, D.C.]], during the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}}</ref> [[Abraham Lincoln]] was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as [[Ulysses S. Grant]].<ref>James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief'' (2009)</ref>
+The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly.<ref>Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review]</ref> George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established [[civilian control of the military|military subordination under civilian authority]]. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], a conflict in [[Western Pennsylvania]] involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian [[Joseph Ellis]], this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though [[James Madison]] briefly took control of artillery units in [[Burning of Washington|defense of Washington, D.C.]], during the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}}</ref> Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as [[Ulysses S. Grant]].<ref>James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief'' (2009)</ref>
 The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and is normally exercised through the [[United States Secretary of Defense|secretary of defense]]. The [[chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] and the [[Combatant Command]]s assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).<ref name="ucp">{{Cite news |url=http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |title=DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 |date=April 8, 2011 |work=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513070316/http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |archive-date=May 13, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{USC|10|164}}</ref><ref>[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022040/http://www.jcs.mil/page.aspx?id=2 About the Joint Chiefs of Staff]. Retrieved February 25, 2013.</ref>