Richard Nixon: Difference between revisions

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 In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited.{{sfn|Black|p=446}} The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a [[Partner lawyer|senior partner]] in the leading law firm [[Mudge Rose Guthrie Alexander & Ferdon|Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|his assassination]], Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=297, 321}}
-In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes [[1964 Republican Party presidential primaries|in the primaries]], and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls<ref>{{cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=April 5, 1964 |title=42% of GOP Rank and File on Lodge Bandwagon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-boston-globe-42-of-gop-rank-and-fil/156807833/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |pages=32 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=January 3, 1964 |title=Johnson Leads Nixon, 3 To 1 In Latest Presidential Poll |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-montgomery-advertiser-johnson-leads/156807869/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=The Montgomery Advertiser |pages=3 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> and members of the press.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 12, 1964|title=Goldwater Looks to California and Oregon Primaries as Crucial to His Chances...|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/12/archives/goldwater-looks-to-california-and-oregon-primaries-as-crucial-to.html|access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref> He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 16, 1964|title=ROCKEFELLER WINS OREGON PRIMARY, UPSETTING LODGE...|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/16/archives/rockefeller-wins-oregon-primary-upsetting-lodge-envoys-campaign.html|access-date=August 12, 2021}}</ref> As late as two months before the [[1964 Republican National Convention]], however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator [[Barry Goldwater]], the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 general election]], Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=321–322}}
+In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes [[1964 Republican Party presidential primaries|in the primaries]], and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls<ref>{{cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=April 5, 1964 |title=42% of GOP Rank and File on Lodge Bandwagon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-boston-globe-42-of-gop-rank-and-fil/156807833/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |pages=32 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=January 3, 1964 |title=Johnson Leads Nixon, 3 To 1 In Latest Presidential Poll |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-montgomery-advertiser-johnson-leads/156807869/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=The Montgomery Advertiser |pages=3 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> and members of the press.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 12, 1964|title=Goldwater Looks to California and Oregon Primaries as Crucial to His Chances...|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/12/archives/goldwater-looks-to-california-and-oregon-primaries-as-crucial-to.html|access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref> He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 16, 1964|title=ROCKEFELLER WINS OREGON PRIMARY, UPSETTING LODGE...|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/16/archives/rockefeller-wins-oregon-primary-upsetting-lodge-envoys-campaign.html|access-date=August 12, 2021}}</ref> As late as two months before the [[1964 Republican National Convention]], however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator [[Barry Goldwater]], the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 general election]], Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=321–322}}
 Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the [[1966 United States elections|1966 congressional elections]] in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=323–326}}
-In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in [[Leonard Garment]] about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of the Hill family in ''[[Time, Inc. v. Hill]]'' at the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite news|date=October 6, 1988|title=Cover-Up and Privacy in Nixon vs. ABC|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/06/opinion/l-cover-up-and-privacy-in-nixon-vs-abc-081489.html|access-date=August 23, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barbas |first=Samantha |date=2017 |title=Richard Nixon at the Supreme Court |url=https://www.oah.org/process/richard-nixon-supreme-court/ |access-date=2024-09-23 |website=Process |publisher=[[Organization of American Historians]]}}</ref>
+In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in [[Leonard Garment]] about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of the Hill family in ''[[Time, Inc. v. Hill]]'' at the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite news|date=October 6, 1988|title=Cover-Up and Privacy in Nixon vs. ABC|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/06/opinion/l-cover-up-and-privacy-in-nixon-vs-abc-081489.html|access-date=August 23, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barbas |first=Samantha |date=2017 |title=Richard Nixon at the Supreme Court |url=https://www.oah.org/process/richard-nixon-supreme-court/ |access-date=2024-09-23 |website=Process |publisher=[[Organization of American Historians]]}}</ref>
 == 1968 presidential campaign ==
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 In July 1969, Nixon visited [[South Vietnam]], where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President [[Nguyễn Văn Thiệu]]. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam|Vietnamese troops]], known as "[[Vietnamization]]".{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals,{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the [[Ho Chi Minh trail]] passing through Laos and Cambodia and used to supply North Vietnamese forces. In March 1970, at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by [[Pol Pot]]'s then-second-in-command, [[Nuon Chea]], North Vietnamese troops launched an offensive and overran much of Cambodia.<ref>{{cite book|first=Dmitry |last=Mosyakov |chapter=The Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese Communists: A History of Their Relations as Told in the Soviet Archives |editor-first=Susan E. |editor-last=Cook |title=Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda |series=Yale Genocide Studies Program Monograph Series |issue=1 |date=2004 |page=54ff |chapter-url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |quote=In April–May 1970, many North Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in response to the call for help addressed to Vietnam not by Pol Pot, but by his deputy Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: 'Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days.' |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309074636/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |archive-date=March 9, 2013}}</ref> Nixon announced the [[Cambodian campaign|ground invasion of Cambodia]] on April 30, 1970, against North Vietnamese bases in the east of the country,{{sfn|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}} and further protests erupted against perceived expansion of the conflict, which resulted in Ohio National Guardsmen killing four unarmed students at [[Kent State shootings|Kent State University]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gitlin|first=Todd|title=[[The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage]]|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1987|isbn=978-0-553-37212-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/sixtiesyearsofho00gitl/page/410 410]}}</ref> Nixon's responses to protesters included [[Richard Nixon's visit to the Lincoln Memorial|an impromptu, early morning meeting with them]] at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] on May 9, 1970.{{r|Safire pp205–209}}{{sfn|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}{{sfn|Black|pp=675–676}} Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "[[credibility gap]]" on the issue.{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the [[Operation Freedom Deal|bombing of Cambodia]] between 1970 and 1973.<ref name="Kiernan">{{cite magazine|last1=Owen|first1=Taylor|last2=Kiernan|first2=Ben|title=Bombs Over Cambodia|magazine=The Walrus|date=October 2006|url=http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|pages=32–36|access-date=January 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420220434/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=April 20, 2016|url-status=live}} Kiernan and Owen later revised their estimate of 2.7 million tons of U.S. bombs dropped on Cambodia down to the previously accepted figure of roughly 500,000 tons: See {{cite web|authorlink1=Ben Kiernan|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|last2=Owen|first2=Taylor|url=http://apjjf.org/2015/13/16/Ben-Kiernan/4313.html|title=Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications|work=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=April 26, 2015|access-date=November 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912002843/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=September 12, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
-In 1971, excerpts from the "[[Pentagon Papers]]", which had been leaked by [[Daniel Ellsberg]], were published by ''[[The New York Times]]'' and ''[[The Washington Post]]''. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court [[New York Times Co. v. United States|ruled in favor of]] the newspapers.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=446–448}}
+In 1971, excerpts from the "[[Pentagon Papers]]", which had been leaked by [[Daniel Ellsberg]], were published by ''The New York Times'' and ''[[The Washington Post]]''. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court [[New York Times Co. v. United States|ruled in favor of]] the newspapers.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=446–448}}
 As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]] was phased out by 1973, and the armed forces became all-volunteer.{{sfn|Evans}} After years of fighting, the [[Paris Peace Accords]] were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring withdrawal of the 160,000 [[North Vietnam Army]] regulars located in the South.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=53–55}} Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting resumed, and [[1975 spring offensive|North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975]].{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=473}}