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The CDC works towards these goals by conducting health promotion, prevention of disease, injury, and disability through activities
The CDC works towards these goals by conducting health promotion, prevention of disease, injury, and disability through activities
|ParentOrganization=Department of Health and Human Services
|ParentOrganization=Department of Health and Human Services
|TopOrganization=Department of Health and Human Services
|Employees=11814
|Employees=11814
|Budget=1580000000
|Budget=1580000000
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{{short description|United States government public health agency}}
{{short description|United States government public health agency}}
{{redirect|CDC}}
{{redirect|Centers for Disease Control|affiliated agencies outside the US|List of national public health agencies}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2020}}The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' ('''CDC''') is the [[National public health institutes|national public health agency]] of the United States. It is a [[Federal agencies of the United States|United States federal agency]] under the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]], and is headquartered in [[Atlanta]], Georgia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy-2020-cdc-contingency-staffing-plan/index.html|title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=October 4, 2019|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=May 15, 2020|archive-date=April 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410150453/https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy-2020-cdc-contingency-staffing-plan/index.html}}</ref><ref name=NiesseEmoryannexed>{{cite news|author=Niesse, Mark|url=http://www.ajc.com/news/local-govt--politics/city-atlanta-expansion-emory-and-cdc-approved/kMYzghHbvzD6THTyWpN1zH/|title=City of Atlanta's expansion to Emory and CDC approved|work=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|access-date=December 5, 2017}}</ref>
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| preceding1      = Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities (1942)
| preceding2      = Office of Malaria Control in War Areas (1942–46)
| preceding3      = Communicable Disease Center (1946–67)
| preceding4      = National Communicable Disease Center (1967–70)
| preceding5      = Center for Disease Control (1970–80)
| preceding6      = Centers for Disease Control (1980–92)
<!--| preceding7      = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1992–Present) Broken! -->
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The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' ('''CDC''') is the [[National public health institutes|national public health agency]] of the United States. It is a [[Federal agencies of the United States|United States federal agency]] under the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]], and is headquartered in [[Atlanta]], Georgia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy-2020-cdc-contingency-staffing-plan/index.html|title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=October 4, 2019|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=May 15, 2020|archive-date=April 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410150453/https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy-2020-cdc-contingency-staffing-plan/index.html}}</ref><ref name=NiesseEmoryannexed>{{cite news|author=Niesse, Mark|url=http://www.ajc.com/news/local-govt--politics/city-atlanta-expansion-emory-and-cdc-approved/kMYzghHbvzD6THTyWpN1zH/|title=City of Atlanta's expansion to Emory and CDC approved|work=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|access-date=December 5, 2017}}</ref>


The agency's main goal is the protection of [[public health]] and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and [[disability]] in the US and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2014-04-14 |title=Mission, Role and Pledge |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118010457/https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm |archive-date=2017-01-18 |access-date= |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on [[infectious disease]], [[Foodborne illness|food borne pathogens]], [[environmental health]], [[occupational safety and health]], [[health promotion]], [[injury prevention]], and educational activities designed to improve the health of [[United States citizens]]. The CDC also conducts research and provides information on [[non-infectious diseases]], such as [[obesity]] and [[diabetes]], and is a founding member of the [[International Association of National Public Health Institutes]].<ref name="cdcoffwebsite">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov|title=Home: CDC|website=cdc.gov|access-date=November 19, 2008}}</ref>
The agency's main goal is the protection of [[public health]] and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and [[disability]] in the US and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2014-04-14 |title=Mission, Role and Pledge |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118010457/https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm |archive-date=2017-01-18 |access-date= |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on [[infectious disease]], [[Foodborne illness|food borne pathogens]], [[environmental health]], [[occupational safety and health]], [[health promotion]], [[injury prevention]], and educational activities designed to improve the health of [[United States citizens]]. The CDC also conducts research and provides information on [[non-infectious diseases]], such as [[obesity]] and [[diabetes]], and is a founding member of the [[International Association of National Public Health Institutes]].<ref name="cdcoffwebsite">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov|title=Home: CDC|website=cdc.gov|access-date=November 19, 2008}}</ref>
The CDC's current director is [[Mandy Cohen]] who assumed office on July 10, 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-07-01|title=Director|url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/leadership/director.htm|access-date=2023-07-10|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en}}</ref>


==History==
==History==
{{See also|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention timeline}}
=== Establishment ===
=== Establishment ===
The '''Communicable Disease Center''' was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the [[World War II]] [[National Malaria Eradication Program#History|Malaria Control in War Areas]] program<ref name="pmid8955706">{{cite journal|author=Parascandola J|title=From MCWA to CDC{{snd}}origins of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|journal=Public Health Reports|date=November–December 1996|pmid=8955706|volume=111|issue=6|pages =549–551|pmc=1381908}}</ref> of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities.<ref name="NARA">{{cite web|title=Records of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Record Group 442) 1921–2004 |work=Guide to Federal Records |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=United States |date=November 9, 2010 |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html |access-date=2009-10-04 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101119230544/http://archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html |archive-date=November 19, 2010  }}</ref>
The '''Communicable Disease Center''' was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the [[World War II]] [[National Malaria Eradication Program#History|Malaria Control in War Areas]] program<ref name="pmid8955706">{{cite journal|author=Parascandola J|title=From MCWA to CDC{{snd}}origins of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|journal=Public Health Reports|date=November–December 1996|pmid=8955706|volume=111|issue=6|pages =549–551|pmc=1381908}}</ref> of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities.<ref name="NARA">{{cite web|title=Records of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Record Group 442) 1921–2004 |work=Guide to Federal Records |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=United States |date=November 9, 2010 |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html |access-date=2009-10-04 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101119230544/http://archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html |archive-date=November 19, 2010  }}</ref>
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=== Growth ===
=== Growth ===
[[File:CDC Cifton Road campus 1963.jpg|thumb|The Communicable Disease Center moved to its current headquarters in 1960.  Building 1 is pictured in 1963.]]
In 1951, Chief Epidemiologist [[Alexander Langmuir|Alexander Langmuir's]] warnings of potential [[biological warfare]] during the Korean War spurred the creation of the [[Epidemic Intelligence Service]] (EIS) as a two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology. The success of the EIS program led to the launch of [[Field Epidemiology Training Program]]s (FETP) in 1980, training more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/healthprotection/fetp-40th-anniversary/index.html|title=FETP 40th Anniversary &#124; Division of Global Health Protection &#124; Global Health &#124; CDC|date=March 12, 2021|website=CDC}}</ref> In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mark|first2=Sharon M.|last2=McDonnell|first3=Denise H.|last3=Werker|first4=Victor M.|last4=Cardenas|first5=Stephen B.|last5=Thacker|year=2001|title=Partnerships in International Applied Epidemiology Training and Service|journal=[[American Journal of Epidemiology]]|volume=154|issue=11|pages=993–999|doi=10.1093/aje/154.11.993|pmid=11724714|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network ([[TEPHINET]]) has graduated 950 students.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tephinet.org/training-programs/thailand-field-epidemiology-training-program|title=Thailand Field Epidemiology Training Program &#124; TEPHINET|website=www.tephinet.org}}</ref>
In 1951, Chief Epidemiologist [[Alexander Langmuir|Alexander Langmuir's]] warnings of potential [[biological warfare]] during the [[Korean War]] spurred the creation of the [[Epidemic Intelligence Service]] (EIS) as a two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology. The success of the EIS program led to the launch of [[Field Epidemiology Training Program]]s (FETP) in 1980, training more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/healthprotection/fetp-40th-anniversary/index.html|title=FETP 40th Anniversary &#124; Division of Global Health Protection &#124; Global Health &#124; CDC|date=March 12, 2021|website=CDC}}</ref> In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mark|first2=Sharon M.|last2=McDonnell|first3=Denise H.|last3=Werker|first4=Victor M.|last4=Cardenas|first5=Stephen B.|last5=Thacker|year=2001|title=Partnerships in International Applied Epidemiology Training and Service|journal=[[American Journal of Epidemiology]]|volume=154|issue=11|pages=993–999|doi=10.1093/aje/154.11.993|pmid=11724714|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network ([[TEPHINET]]) has graduated 950 students.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tephinet.org/training-programs/thailand-field-epidemiology-training-program|title=Thailand Field Epidemiology Training Program &#124; TEPHINET|website=www.tephinet.org}}</ref>


The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include [[sexually transmitted disease]]s when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Beth E. Meyerson|author2=Fred A. Martich|author3=Gerald P. Naehr|year=2008|title=Ready to Go: The History and Contributions of U.S. Public Health Advisors|location=Research Triangle Park|publisher=American Social Health Association}}</ref>
The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include [[sexually transmitted disease]]s when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Beth E. Meyerson|author2=Fred A. Martich|author3=Gerald P. Naehr|year=2008|title=Ready to Go: The History and Contributions of U.S. Public Health Advisors|location=Research Triangle Park|publisher=American Social Health Association}}</ref>
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=== Recent history ===
=== Recent history ===
[[File:Arlen Specter Headquarters Building PHIL 7971.tif|Arlen Specter Headquarters and Emergency Operations Center|left|thumb]]It was renamed to the plural '''Centers for Disease Control''' effective October 14, 1980,<ref name="NARA" /> as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established.  By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and the Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] in 1973, and the [[National Center for Health Statistics]] in 1987.<ref name=":102">{{cite book |last=Etheridge |first=Elizabeth W. |url=https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz |title=Sentinel for Health: A History of the Centers for Disease Control |date=1992|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520910416 |location= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz/page/229 229–231], [https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz/page/342 342–343] |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref>
It was renamed to the plural '''Centers for Disease Control''' effective October 14, 1980,<ref name="NARA" /> as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established.  By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and the Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] in 1973, and the [[National Center for Health Statistics]] in 1987.<ref name=":102">{{cite book |last=Etheridge |first=Elizabeth W. |url=https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz |title=Sentinel for Health: A History of the Centers for Disease Control |date=1992|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520910416 |location= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz/page/229 229–231], [https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz/page/342 342–343] |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref>


An act of the [[United States Congress]] appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition.<ref>{{cite journal|title=CDC: the nation's prevention agency |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=41 |issue=44 |page=833 |year=1992 |pmid=1331740 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00017924.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110611163317/http://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00017924.htm |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |url-status=live |author1=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) }}</ref>  Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include [[Chronic (medical)|chronic diseases]], [[Disability|disabilities]], injury control, [[Occupational safety and health|workplace hazards]], [[environmental health]] threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including [[Congenital disorder|birth defects]], [[West Nile virus]], [[obesity]], [[Avian influenza|avian]], [[Swine influenza|swine]], and [[pandemic flu]], [[Escherichia coli|E. coli]], and [[bioterrorism]], to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of [[penicillin]]. In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including [[Botulinum toxin]], [[West Nile virus]], ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' and [[Dengue fever]] virus.<ref>"The eleventh plague: the politics of biological and chemical warfare" (pp. 84–86) by [http://www.leonardcole.com Leonard A. Cole] (1993)</ref>
An act of the [[United States Congress]] appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition.<ref>{{cite journal|title=CDC: the nation's prevention agency |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=41 |issue=44 |page=833 |year=1992 |pmid=1331740 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00017924.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110611163317/http://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00017924.htm |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |url-status=live |author1=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) }}</ref>  Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include [[Chronic (medical)|chronic diseases]], [[Disability|disabilities]], injury control, [[Occupational safety and health|workplace hazards]], [[environmental health]] threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including [[Congenital disorder|birth defects]], [[West Nile virus]], [[obesity]], [[Avian influenza|avian]], [[Swine influenza|swine]], and [[pandemic flu]], [[Escherichia coli|E. coli]], and [[bioterrorism]], to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of [[penicillin]]. In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including [[Botulinum toxin]], [[West Nile virus]], ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' and [[Dengue fever]] virus.<ref>"The eleventh plague: the politics of biological and chemical warfare" (pp. 84–86) by [http://www.leonardcole.com Leonard A. Cole] (1993)</ref>
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The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the [[Atlanta City Council]] had voted to do so the prior December.<ref name="NiesseEmoryannexed" /> The CDC and [[Emory University]] had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a [[MARTA]] expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars.<ref>{{cite web | title=Emory, CDC to be Annexed into Atlanta | last1=Chess | first1=Richard | last2=Bober | first2=Madison | url=https://emorywheel.com/emory-cdc-to-be-annexed-into-atlanta/ | date=December 4, 2017 | website=The Emory Wheel | access-date=May 27, 2023}}</ref> The headquarters were located in an [[unincorporated area]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Torpy, Bill|url=https://www.ajc.com/news/local/torpy-large-dekalb-has-annexation-anxiety-over-emory-cdc/EyaVzWIjxULTGi4iv7xwLK/|title=Torpy at Large: DeKalb has annexation anxiety over Emory, CDC|work=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|date=2017-08-07|access-date=2020-03-11}}</ref> statistically in the [[Druid Hills, Georgia|Druid Hills]] [[census-designated place]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10map/GUBlock/st13_ga/place/p1324264_druid_hills/DC10BLK_P1324264_001.pdf|title=2010 Census Block Map – Druid Hills CDP, GA|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2023-07-11}} – Compare with [https://web.archive.org/web/20100203031222/https://www.cdc.gov/ the address]: "1600 Clifton Rd. Atlanta, GA 30333, USA"</ref>
The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the [[Atlanta City Council]] had voted to do so the prior December.<ref name="NiesseEmoryannexed" /> The CDC and [[Emory University]] had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a [[MARTA]] expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars.<ref>{{cite web | title=Emory, CDC to be Annexed into Atlanta | last1=Chess | first1=Richard | last2=Bober | first2=Madison | url=https://emorywheel.com/emory-cdc-to-be-annexed-into-atlanta/ | date=December 4, 2017 | website=The Emory Wheel | access-date=May 27, 2023}}</ref> The headquarters were located in an [[unincorporated area]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Torpy, Bill|url=https://www.ajc.com/news/local/torpy-large-dekalb-has-annexation-anxiety-over-emory-cdc/EyaVzWIjxULTGi4iv7xwLK/|title=Torpy at Large: DeKalb has annexation anxiety over Emory, CDC|work=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|date=2017-08-07|access-date=2020-03-11}}</ref> statistically in the [[Druid Hills, Georgia|Druid Hills]] [[census-designated place]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10map/GUBlock/st13_ga/place/p1324264_druid_hills/DC10BLK_P1324264_001.pdf|title=2010 Census Block Map – Druid Hills CDP, GA|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2023-07-11}} – Compare with [https://web.archive.org/web/20100203031222/https://www.cdc.gov/ the address]: "1600 Clifton Rd. Atlanta, GA 30333, USA"</ref>


On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations."<ref>{{cite news |last=Steenhuysen |first=Julie |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/cdc-plans-reorganize-structure-after-pandemic-related-criticism-wsj-2022-08-17/ |title=U.S. CDC plans to focus on public health response after pandemic failings |work=[[Reuters]] |date=2022-08-17 |accessdate=2022-08-17 }}</ref> Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times).<ref name=nytreorg/>
On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations."<ref>{{cite news |last=Steenhuysen |first=Julie |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/cdc-plans-reorganize-structure-after-pandemic-related-criticism-wsj-2022-08-17/ |title=U.S. CDC plans to focus on public health response after pandemic failings |work=Reuters |date=2022-08-17 |accessdate=2022-08-17 }}</ref> Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times).<ref name=nytreorg/>


==Organization==
==Organization==
{{Main|Organization of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}
{{Main|Organization of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}The CDC is organized into centers, institutes, and offices (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing the agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats.<ref name="pmid8955706" />
 
[[File:CDC Headquarters PHIL 10693.tif|CDC's Roybal campus in Atlanta, Georgia|thumb]]
[[File:Tom Harkin Global Communications Center PHIL 8876.tif|Tom Harkin Global Communications Center|thumb]]
[[File:CDC HDR I.jpg|thumb|CDC Building 17 in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], as seen from [[Emory University]]]]
The CDC is organized into centers, institutes, and offices (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing the agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats.<ref name="pmid8955706" />


As of the most recent reorganization in February 2023, the CIOs are:<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2023-02-21 |title=CDC Organization |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/cio.htm |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref>
As of the most recent reorganization in February 2023, the CIOs are:<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2023-02-21 |title=CDC Organization |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/cio.htm |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref>
* Director
* Director
** [[National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases]]
** [[National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases]]
** National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases
** [[National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases]]
*** [[Division of Global Migration Health]]<ref>{{cite web |last=National Center of Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease |date=February 14, 2019 |title=Divisions and Office Overview |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/who-we-are/ncezid-divisions/index.html |access-date=30 October 2020 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref>
*** [[Division of Global Migration Health]]<ref>{{cite web |last=National Center of Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease |date=February 14, 2019 |title=Divisions and Office Overview |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/who-we-are/ncezid-divisions/index.html |access-date=30 October 2020 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref>
** [[National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention]]
** [[National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention]]
** National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
** [[National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental DisabilitiesNational Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion|National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities]]
** National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
** [[National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental DisabilitiesNational Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion|National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion]]
** National Center for Environmental Health / [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]]
** [[National Center for Environmental Health]] / [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]]
** [[National Center for Injury Prevention and Control]]
** [[National Center for Injury Prevention and Control]]
** [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]
** [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]
** Public Health Infrastructure Center
** [[Public Health Infrastructure Center]]
** Global Health Center
** [[Global Health Center]]
** Immediate Office of the Director
** Immediate Office of the Director
*** Chief of Staff
*** [[Chief of Staff (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)|Chief of Staff (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''')''']]
*** Office of the Chief Operating Officer
*** [[Office of the Chief Operating Officer]]
*** Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation
*** [[Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation]]
*** Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity
*** [[Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity]]
*** Office of Communications
*** [[Office of Communications (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)|Office of Communications (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''')''']]
*** Office of Health Equity
*** [[Office of Health Equity]]
*** Office of Science
*** [[Office of Science (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)|Office of Science (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''')''']]
*** CDC Washington Office
*** [[CDC Washington Office]]
*** Office of Laboratory Science and Safety
*** [[Office of Laboratory Science and Safety]]
*** Office of Readiness and Response
*** [[Office of Readiness and Response]]
**** Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics
**** [[Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics]]
*** Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology
*** [[Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology]]
**** [[National Center for Health Statistics]]
**** [[National Center for Health Statistics]]


Line 137: Line 90:


=== Locations ===
=== Locations ===
Most CDC centers are located in [[Atlanta]].  Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative [[Edward R. Roybal]]), contains the premier [[BSL4]] laboratory in the United States.<ref name="b18ie">{{cite news |title=CDC Structural Façade Inspection, Building 18 |url=https://ieiusa.com/iei-portfolio/cdc-structural-facade-inspection-building-18-altanta-ga/ |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Innovative Engineering}}</ref><ref name="mcwcdc">{{cite news |title=Centre for Disease Control – Building 18 |url=http://www.mcw.com/Projects/Details?f=m&title=Centre-for-Disease-Control---Building-18 |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=MCW Hemisphere |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821214417/http://www.mcw.com/Projects/Details?f=m&title=Centre-for-Disease-Control---Building-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ayusa">{{cite news |last1=Young |first1=Alison |title=Newly disclosed CDC biolab failures 'like a screenplay for a disaster movie' |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/06/02/newly-disclosed-cdc-lab-incidents-fuel-concerns-safety-transparency/84978860/ |publisher=[[USA Today]] |date=2 June 2016}}</ref>
Most CDC centers are located in [[Atlanta]].  Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative [[Edward R. Roybal]]), contains the premier [[BSL4]] laboratory in the United States.<ref name="b18ie">{{cite news |title=CDC Structural Façade Inspection, Building 18 |url=https://ieiusa.com/iei-portfolio/cdc-structural-facade-inspection-building-18-altanta-ga/ |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Innovative Engineering}}</ref><ref name="mcwcdc">{{cite news |title=Centre for Disease Control – Building 18 |url=http://www.mcw.com/Projects/Details?f=m&title=Centre-for-Disease-Control---Building-18 |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=MCW Hemisphere |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821214417/http://www.mcw.com/Projects/Details?f=m&title=Centre-for-Disease-Control---Building-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ayusa">{{cite news |last1=Young |first1=Alison |title=Newly disclosed CDC biolab failures 'like a screenplay for a disaster movie' |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/06/02/newly-disclosed-cdc-lab-incidents-fuel-concerns-safety-transparency/84978860/ |publisher=USA Today |date=2 June 2016}}</ref>


A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations:<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-23|title=Living in Atlanta|url=https://www.cdc.gov/jobs/living-in-atlanta.html|access-date=2019-05-29|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations:<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-23|title=Living in Atlanta|url=https://www.cdc.gov/jobs/living-in-atlanta.html|access-date=2019-05-29|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
Line 170: Line 123:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|-
|-
!Portrait
!Director
!Director
!Took office
!Took office
!Left office
!Left office
|-
|-
|[[File:Louis L. Williams.jpg|100px]]
|[[Louis L. Williams]] Jr.
|[[Louis L. Williams]] Jr.
|1942
|1942
|1943
|1943
|-
|-
|[[File:Mark D. Hollis.jpg|100px]]
|[[Mark D. Hollis]]
|[[Mark D. Hollis]]
|1944
|1944
|1946
|1946
|-
|-
|[[File:Raymond A. Vonderlehr.jpg|100px]]
|[[Raymond A. Vonderlehr]]
|[[Raymond A. Vonderlehr]]
|1947
|1947
|1951
|1951
|-
|-
|[[File:Justin M. Andrews.jpg|100px]]
|[[Justin M. Andrews]]
|[[Justin M. Andrews]]
|1952
|1952
|1953
|1953
|-
|-
|[[File:Theodore J. Bauer.jpg|100px]]
|[[Theodore J. Bauer]]
|[[Theodore J. Bauer]]
|1953
|1953
|1956
|1956
|-
|-
|[[File:Robert J Anderson.jpg|100px]]
|[[Robert J. Anderson (public health administrator)|Robert J. Anderson]]
|[[Robert J. Anderson (public health administrator)|Robert J. Anderson]]
|October 1, 1956
|October 1, 1956
|June 30, 1960
|June 30, 1960
|-
|-
|[[File:Clarence A. Smith.jpg|100px]]
|[[Clarence A. Smith]]
|[[Clarence A. Smith]]
|1960
|1960
|1962
|1962
|-
|-
|[[File:James L. Goddard.gif|100px]]
|[[James L. Goddard]]
|[[James L. Goddard]]
|1962
|1962
|January 1966
|January 1966
|-
|-
|[[File:David Sencer portrait.png|100px]]
|[[David Sencer|David J. Sencer]]
|[[David Sencer|David J. Sencer]]
|1966
|1966
|May 1977
|May 1977
|-
|-
|[[File:William H. Foege.jpg|100px]]
|[[William Foege|William H. Foege]]
|[[William Foege|William H. Foege]]
|May 1977
|May 1977
|1983
|1983
|-
|-
|[[File:James O. Mason USPHS.jpg|100px]]
|[[James O. Mason]]
|[[James O. Mason]]
|1983
|1983
|1989
|1989
|-
|-
|[[File:William L Roper.jpg|100px]]
|[[William L. Roper]]
|[[William L. Roper]]
|March 1, 1990
|March 1, 1990
|June 30, 1993
|June 30, 1993
|-
|-
|[[File:David Satcher official photo portrait.jpg|100px]]
|[[David Satcher]]
|[[David Satcher]]
|1993
|1993
|February 13, 1998
|February 13, 1998
|-
|-
|[[File:Jeffrey P. Koplan.jpg|100px]]
|[[Jeffrey Koplan|Jeffrey P. Koplan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ianphi.org/who-we-are/biography-executive.cfm/third/executive/staff_id/0DC197D2-123F-73FE-89B61A336FB4B8D5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015040509/http://ianphi.org/who-we-are/biography-executive.cfm/third/executive/staff_id/0DC197D2-123F-73FE-89B61A336FB4B8D5|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-10-15|title=National Public Health Institute, NPHI Advocacy|publisher=IANPHI|access-date=2012-04-16}}</ref>
|[[Jeffrey Koplan|Jeffrey P. Koplan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ianphi.org/who-we-are/biography-executive.cfm/third/executive/staff_id/0DC197D2-123F-73FE-89B61A336FB4B8D5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015040509/http://ianphi.org/who-we-are/biography-executive.cfm/third/executive/staff_id/0DC197D2-123F-73FE-89B61A336FB4B8D5|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-10-15|title=National Public Health Institute, NPHI Advocacy|publisher=IANPHI|access-date=2012-04-16}}</ref>
|October 5, 1998
|October 5, 1998
|March 31, 2002
|March 31, 2002
|-
|-
|[[File:JGerberding cdc photo.jpg|100px]]
|[[Julie Gerberding]]
|[[Julie Gerberding]]
|June 3, 2002
|June 3, 2002
|January 20, 2009
|January 20, 2009
|-
|-
|[[File:Thomas Frieden official CDC portrait.jpg|100px]]
|[[Tom Frieden|Thomas R. Frieden]]<ref name="Frieden" />
|[[Tom Frieden|Thomas R. Frieden]]<ref name="Frieden" />
|June 8, 2009
|June 8, 2009
|January 20, 2017
|January 20, 2017
|-
|-
|[[File:Anne Schuchat, 2018.jpg|100px]]
|[[Anne Schuchat]] (acting)<ref name="Schuchat">{{cite web|url = https://www.cdc.gov/about/leadership/leaders/pdd.html|title = Principal Deputy Director: Anne Schuchat, MD |website = cdc.gov|date =2 August 2019}}</ref>
|[[Anne Schuchat]] (acting)<ref name="Schuchat">{{cite web|url = https://www.cdc.gov/about/leadership/leaders/pdd.html|title = Principal Deputy Director: Anne Schuchat, MD |website = cdc.gov|date =2 August 2019}}</ref>
|January 20, 2017
|January 20, 2017
|July 7, 2017
|July 7, 2017
|-
|-
|[[File:Brenda Fitzgerald official photo.jpg|100px]]
|[[Brenda Fitzgerald]]<ref name="Fitzgerald">{{Cite news|url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/371592-cdc-head-resigns-after-report-she-traded-tobacco-stocks/|title=CDC head resigns after report she traded tobacco stocks|last=Hellmann|first=Jessie|date=January 31, 2018|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|access-date=January 31, 2018}}</ref>
|[[Brenda Fitzgerald]]<ref name="Fitzgerald">{{Cite news|url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/371592-cdc-head-resigns-after-report-she-traded-tobacco-stocks/|title=CDC head resigns after report she traded tobacco stocks|last=Hellmann|first=Jessie|date=January 31, 2018|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|access-date=January 31, 2018}}</ref>
|July 7, 2017
|July 7, 2017
|January 31, 2018
|January 31, 2018
|-
|-
|[[File:Anne Schuchat, 2018.jpg|100px]]
|[[Anne Schuchat]] (acting)
|[[Anne Schuchat]] (acting)
|January 31, 2018
|January 31, 2018
|March 26, 2018
|March 26, 2018
|-
|-
|[[File:Robert R. Redfield.jpg|100px]]
|[[Robert R. Redfield]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2018/03/21/longtime-aids-researcher-robert-redfield-picked-to-lead-cdc/|title=Longtime AIDS researcher Robert Redfield picked to lead CDC|last=Sun|first=Lena H.|date=2018-03-21|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=2018-03-22|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
|[[Robert R. Redfield]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2018/03/21/longtime-aids-researcher-robert-redfield-picked-to-lead-cdc/|title=Longtime AIDS researcher Robert Redfield picked to lead CDC|last=Sun|first=Lena H.|date=2018-03-21|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=2018-03-22|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
|March 26, 2018
|March 26, 2018
|January 20, 2021
|January 20, 2021
|-
|-
|[[File:Rochelle Walensky, CDC Director (cropped).jpg|100px]]
|[[Rochelle Walensky]]
|[[Rochelle Walensky]]
|January 20, 2021
|January 20, 2021
|June 30, 2023
|June 30, 2023
|-
|-
|[[File:Nirav D. Shah.png|100px]]
|[[Nirav D. Shah]] (acting)
|[[Nirav D. Shah]] (acting)
|July 1, 2023
|July 1, 2023
|July 10, 2023
|July 10, 2023
|-
|-
|[[File:Mandy K. Cohen, CDC Director.jpg|100px]]
|[[Mandy Cohen]]
|[[Mandy Cohen]]
|July 10, 2023
|July 10, 2023
Line 348: Line 277:


== CDC Foundation ==
== CDC Foundation ==
The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit [[501(c)(3)]] organization incorporated in the State of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the [[Public Health Service Act]] to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=42 U.S. Code § 280e–11 – Establishment and duties of Foundation |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/280e-11 |website=Legal Information Institute |access-date=September 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918211846/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/280e-11 |archive-date=September 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdcfoundation.org|title=CDCfoundation.org|publisher=CDCfoundation.org|access-date=2012-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427005757/http://www.cdcfoundation.org|archive-date=April 27, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1995 to 2022, the foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-07-07 |title=CDC Foundation |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/business/cdcfoun.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725170721/https://www.cdc.gov/about/business/cdcfoun.htm |archive-date=2022-07-25 |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> [[Bill Cosby]] formerly served as a member of the foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Stokes |first1=Charles |last2=Jacobs |first2=Phil |title=Fiscal Year 2008 Report to Contributors |url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/ReportToContributors_FY08.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806034654/https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/ReportToContributors_FY08.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-06 |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=[[CDC Foundation]]}}</ref>
The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit [[501(c)(3)]] organization incorporated in the State of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the [[Public Health Service Act]] to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=42 U.S. Code § 280e–11 – Establishment and duties of Foundation |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/280e-11 |website=Legal Information Institute |access-date=September 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918211846/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/280e-11 |archive-date=September 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdcfoundation.org|title=CDCfoundation.org|publisher=CDCfoundation.org|access-date=2012-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427005757/http://www.cdcfoundation.org|archive-date=April 27, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1995 to 2022, the foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-07-07 |title=CDC Foundation |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/business/cdcfoun.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725170721/https://www.cdc.gov/about/business/cdcfoun.htm |archive-date=2022-07-25 |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> Bill Cosby formerly served as a member of the foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Stokes |first1=Charles |last2=Jacobs |first2=Phil |title=Fiscal Year 2008 Report to Contributors |url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/ReportToContributors_FY08.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806034654/https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/ReportToContributors_FY08.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-06 |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=[[CDC Foundation]]}}</ref>


=== Activities ===
=== Activities ===
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=== Criticism ===
=== Criticism ===
In 2015, ''[[BMJ]]'' associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lenzer |first=Jeanne |date=2015-05-15 |title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: protecting the private good? |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h2362 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=350 |pages=h2362 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h2362 |issn=1756-1833 |pmid=25979454|s2cid=37357486 }}</ref>
In 2015, ''[[BMJ]]'' associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lenzer |first=Jeanne |date=2015-05-15 |title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: protecting the private good? |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h2362 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=350 |pages=h2362 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h2362 |issn=1756-1833 |pmid=25979454|s2cid=37357486 }}</ref>
==Controversies==
===Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis in Black men===
For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]].<ref name="tuskegee">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm|title=U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee: The Tuskegee Timeline |publisher=National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC|date = 22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103131421/https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm |archive-date=Jan 3, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease. The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their [[informed consent]] to serve as research subjects. The Tuskegee Study was [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment|initiated in 1932]] by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995.<ref name=tuskegee/>
===Gun control===
An area of partisan dispute related to CDC funding is studying firearms effectiveness.  Although the CDC was one of the first government agencies to study gun related data, in 1996 the [[Dickey Amendment]], passed with the support of the [[National Rifle Association of America]], states "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control".<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/pdf/PLAW-104publ208.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506002733/http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/pdf/PLAW-104publ208.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-06 |url-status=live|title=Public Law 104-208|date=September 30, 1996|work=Congressional Record|quote=... none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control.}}</ref>  Advocates for [[Gun politics in the United States|gun control]] oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it.<ref name=PRI>{{cite web|url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2015-07-02/quietly-congress-extends-ban-cdc-research-gun-violence|title=Quietly, Congress extends a ban on CDC research on guns|publisher=Pri.org|access-date=2015-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703074353/http://www.pri.org/stories/2015-07-02/quietly-congress-extends-ban-cdc-research-gun-violence|archive-date=July 3, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, [[Mark L. Rosenberg]] and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000. They focused on "identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them".<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/cdc-gun-violence/476814 |title=Why Did the CDC Stop Researching Guns? |newspaper=[[The Atlantic]] |quote="The agencys' former leaders say they could do more to explore the subject, but officials fear political{{snd}}and personal{{snd}}retribution." |first=Kate |last=Masters |date=April 5, 2016 |access-date=February 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405110730/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/cdc-gun-violence/476814 |archive-date=April 5, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Their first report, published in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' in 1993 entitled "Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home", reported "mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefold{{snd}}a "huge" increase."<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> In response, the NRA launched a "campaign to shut down the Injury Center."  Two conservative pro-gun groups, [[Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership]] and Doctors for Integrity and Policy Research joined the pro-gun effort, and, by 1995, politicians also supported the pro-gun initiative. In 1996, [[Jay Dickey]] (R) Arkansas introduced the Dickey Amendment statement stating "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control" as a rider.<ref name="auto"/> in the 1996 [[Appropriations bill (United States)|appropriations bill]]."<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> In 1997, "Congress re-directed all of the money for gun research to the study of traumatic brain injury."<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> [[David Satcher]], CDC head 1993–98<ref>{{cite web|author=Office of Public Health and Science |title=David Satcher (1998–2002) |url=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/history/biosatcher.htm |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |date=January 4, 2007 |access-date=January 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071205160010/http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/history/biosatcher.htm |archive-date=December 5, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> advocated for firearms research.<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> In 2016 over a dozen "public health insiders, including current and former CDC senior leaders" told ''[[The Trace (website)|The Trace]]'' interviewers that CDC senior leaders took a cautious stance in their interpretation of the Dickey Amendment and that they could do more but were afraid of political and personal retribution.<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/>
In 2013, the [[American Medical Association]], the [[American Psychological Association]], and the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] sent a letter to the leaders of the Senate Appropriations Committee asking them "to support at least $10{{nbsp}}million within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in FY 2014 along with sufficient new taxes at the National Institutes of Health to support research into the causes and prevention of violence. Furthermore, we urge Members to oppose any efforts to reduce, eliminate, or condition CDC funding related to violence prevention research."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/politics/congressional/Democrats_push_to_restart_CDC_funding_for_gun_violence_research.html|title=Democrats push to restart CDC funding for gun violence research|date=May 21, 2014 |publisher=Philly.com|access-date=2015-11-29}}</ref> Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets.<ref name=PRI/>
=== Ebola ===
In October 2014, the CDC gave a nurse with a fever who was later diagnosed with [[Ebola]] permission to board a commercial flight to [[Cleveland]].<ref>{{cite news |date=October 15, 2014 |title=Ebola nurse got CDC OK for Cleveland trip |url=http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/2014/10/15/second-dallas-hospital-worker-diagnosed-ebola/17290677/ |url-status=dead |access-date=October 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017141442/http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/2014/10/15/second-dallas-hospital-worker-diagnosed-ebola/17290677/ |archive-date=October 17, 2014}}</ref>
=== COVID-19 ===
{{See also|Trump administration communication during the COVID-19 pandemic#Testing|}}
The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, CDC director [[Rochelle Walensky]] acknowledged "some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications", based on the findings of an internal examination.<ref name=nytreorg>{{Cite news |last1=LaFraniere |first1=Sharon |last2=Weiland |first2=Noah |date=2022-08-17 |title=Walensky, Citing Botched Pandemic Response, Calls for C.D.C. Reorganization |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/17/us/politics/cdc-rochelle-walensky-covid.html |access-date=2022-08-21 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
The first confirmed case of [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19]] was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holshue|first1=Michelle L.|last2=DeBolt|first2=Chas|last3=Lindquist|first3=Scott|last4=Lofy|first4=Kathy H.|last5=Wiesman|first5=John|last6=Bruce|first6=Hollianne|last7=Spitters|first7=Christopher|last8=Ericson|first8=Keith|last9=Wilkerson|first9=Sara|last10=Tural|first10=Ahmet|last11=Diaz|first11=George|date=2020-03-05|title=First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=10|pages=929–936|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001191|issn=0028-4793|pmc=7092802|pmid=32004427}}</ref> However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the [[Food and Drug Administration]] began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Whoriskey|first1=Peter|last2=Satija|first2=Neena|title=How U.S. coronavirus testing stalled: Flawed tests, red tape and resistance to using the millions of tests produced by the WHO|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/16/cdc-who-coronavirus-tests/}}</ref> In February 2020, as the CDC's early [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|coronavirus test]] malfunctioned nationwide,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first1=Sara |last1=Murray|first2=Nick |last2=Valencia|first3=Jeremy |last3=Diamond|first4=Scott |last4=Glover|title=How coronavirus testing fumbles squandered valuable time|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/20/politics/coronavirus-testing-trump-administration-response-invs/index.html|access-date=2020-08-09|website=[[CNN]]|date=April 20, 2020 }}</ref> CDC Director [[Robert R. Redfield]] reassured fellow officials on the [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials. It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab. Later investigations by the FDA and the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Willman|first=David|date=June 20, 2020|title=CDC coronavirus test kits were likely contaminated, federal review confirms|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/cdc-coronavirus-test-kits-were-likely-contaminated-federal-review-confirms/2020/06/20/1ceb4e16-b2ef-11ea-8f56-63f38c990077_story.html}}</ref> In November 2020, ''[[NPR]]'' reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kelly |first1=Alexandra |title=CDC knew first coronavirus test was flawed but released it anyway: report |url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/medical-advances/524784-cdc-knew-first-coronavirus-test-was-flawed-but/ |website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=November 6, 2020 |access-date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>
In May 2020, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests – tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus. The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Meyer|first=Alexis C. Madrigal, Robinson|date=2020-05-21|title=How Could the CDC Make That Mistake?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/05/cdc-and-states-are-misreporting-covid-19-test-data-pennsylvania-georgia-texas/611935/|access-date=2020-08-09|website=[[The Atlantic]]|language=en-US}}</ref>
In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]]. Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stolberg|first=Sheryl Gay|date=2020-07-14|title=Trump Administration Strips C.D.C. of Control of Coronavirus Data|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/14/us/politics/trump-cdc-coronavirus.html|access-date=2020-08-09|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website. It restored the data a day later.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ornstein|first=Charles|title=Out of View: After Public Outcry, CDC Adds Hospital Data Back to Its Website – for Now|url=https://www.propublica.org/article/out-of-view-after-public-outcry-cdc-adds-hospital-data-back-to-its-website-for-now?token=TuMy8gExpvZxdxiWRs7mTz21zSyVml5E|access-date=2020-08-09|website=ProPublica|date=July 16, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Who took down the CDC's coronavirus data? The agency itself.|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/07/16/who-took-down-the-cdcs-coronavirus-data-the-agency-itself-367018|access-date=2020-08-09|website=[[Politico]]|date=July 16, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=2020-07-16|title=COVID-19 Data Dashboard – Patient Impact & Hospital Capacity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/covid19/report-patient-impact.html|access-date=2020-08-09|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref>
In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing. The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wu|first=Katherine J.|date=2020-08-25|title=C.D.C. Now Says People Without Covid-19 Symptoms Do Not Need Testing|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/25/health/covid-19-testing-cdc.html|access-date=2020-09-01|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The guidelines were crafted by the [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] without the sign-off of [[Anthony Fauci]] of the NIH.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sheridan|first=Kate|date=2020-08-27|title=CDC director attempts to clarify controversial Covid-19 testing guidelines|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/08/27/redfield-clarify-controversial-testing-guidelines/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=STAT|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Branswell|first1=Helen |first2=Kate |last2=Sheridan |date=2020-08-27|title=New Covid-19 testing guidelines, crafted at the White House, alarm public health experts|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/08/26/new-covid19-testing-guidelines-crafted-at-white-house-alarm-public-health-experts/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=STAT|language=en-US}}</ref> Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard. Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for "the importance of reopening schools" was also crafted outside the CDC.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-09-18|title=Covid-19 Live Updates: C.D.C. Website's Controversial Testing Guideline Was Not Written by C.D.C. Scientists|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/17/world/covid-19-coronavirus.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-09-18|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency.<ref name="nytimes.com">Weiland, Noah, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/16/us/politics/cdc-trump.html 'Like a Hand Grasping': Trump Appointees Describe the Crushing of the C.D.C.]", ''The New York Times'', December 16, 2020.</ref> The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-09-19|title=After Criticism, C.D.C. Reverses Covid-19 Guidelines on Testing People Who Were Exposed|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/18/world/covid-coronavirus.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-09-19|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kaplan|first=Sheila|date=2020-10-10|title=Covid-19 Live Updates: White House Blocked C.D.C. From Mandating Masks on Public Transit|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2020/10/09/world/covid-coronavirus |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-10-10|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports.<ref>{{Cite news|first1=Rebecca |last1=Ballhaus |first2=Stephanie |last2=Armour |first3=Betsy |last3=McKay |date=2020-10-15|title=A Demoralized CDC Grapples With White House Meddling and Its Own Mistakes|language=en-US|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-demoralized-cdc-grapples-with-white-house-meddling-and-its-own-mistakes-11602776561 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-10-15|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
In the lead up to 2020 [[Thanksgiving]], the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, "It's not a requirement. It's a recommendation for the American public to consider." The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-20|title=Coronavirus: CDC urges Americans not to travel for Thanksgiving|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-55011155|access-date=2020-11-21}}</ref>
The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to "ben[d] to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public [...] cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured" as of 2022.<ref name=nytreorg/>
In May 2021, following criticism by scientists, the CDC updated its COVID-19 guidance to acknowledge airborne transmission of COVID-19, after having previously claimed that the majority of infections occurred via "close contact, not airborne transmission".<ref>{{Cite web |last=May |first=Brandon |date=2021-05-10 |title=After Months of Prodding, CDC Updates Guidance on COVID-19 Airborne Transmission |url=https://www.biospace.com/article/cdc-s-updated-guidance-includes-statement-on-covid-19-airborne-transmission-/ |access-date=2022-08-21 |website=BioSpace |language=en-US}}</ref>
In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of [[Delta Air Lines]], CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with COVID-19 from 10 days to five.<ref>{{Cite news |work=NPR |url= https://www.npr.org/2021/12/29/1068731487/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-to-cut-quarantine |title= Delta's CEO asked the CDC for a 5-day isolation. Some flight attendants feel at risk |first1=Deepa |last1=Shivaram |date=December 29, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204135120/https://www.npr.org/2021/12/29/1068731487/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-to-cut-quarantine |archive-date= Feb 4, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepardson |first=David |date=December 21, 2021 |title=Delta CEO asks CDC to cut quarantine time for breakthrough COVID cases |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-cut-quarantine-time-breakthrough-covid-cases-2021-12-21/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714122900/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-cut-quarantine-time-breakthrough-covid-cases-2021-12-21/ |archive-date=Jul 14, 2023 |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=US shortens Covid-19 isolation window amid airline push  |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/metals-platform/newsandanalysis/article/2287248-US-shortens-Covid-19-isolation-window-amid-airline-push |access-date=2023-11-01 |website=Argus Metals |date=28 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101203244/https://www.argusmedia.com/metals-platform/newsandanalysis/article/2287248-US-shortens-Covid-19-isolation-window-amid-airline-push  |archive-date=2023-11-01 }}</ref>
Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mandavilli |first=Apoorva |date=2022-02-20 |title=The C.D.C. Isn't Publishing Large Portions of the Covid Data It Collects |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/20/health/covid-cdc-data.html |access-date=2022-08-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |date=June 11, 2022 |title=US will end Covid-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the country |newspaper=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/06/10/politics/us-to-end-pre-departure-testing-requirement/index.html |last1=Collins |first1=Kaitlan }}</ref>
In January 2022, it was revealed that the CDC had communicated with moderators at [[Facebook]] and [[Instagram]] over COVID-19 information and discussion on the platforms, including information that the CDC considered false or misleading and that might influence people not to get the COVID-19 vaccines.<ref>Flood, Brian, "[https://www.foxnews.com/media/emails-show-cdc-significant-influence-covid-policies-facebook-worked-silence-vaccine-dissent Emails show CDC had 'significant influence' on COVID policies at Facebook, worked to 'silence' vaccine dissent]", [[Fox News]], 19 January 2022</ref>
====Controversy over the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report====
During the pandemic, the CDC [[Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report]] (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic.<ref name = Diamond>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/09/11/exclusive-trump-officials-interfered-with-cdc-reports-on-covid-19-412809|title=Trump officials interfered with CDC reports on Covid-19|last=Diamond|first=Dan|date=September 11, 2020|work=[[Politico]]|access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>
Starting in June 2020, [[Michael Caputo]], the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor [[Paul Elias Alexander|Paul Alexander]] tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance.<ref name="Diamond" /> Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out.<ref name="Sun">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/09/12/trump-control-over-cdc-reports/ |url-access=subscription |title=Trump officials seek greater control over CDC reports on coronavirus|last=Sun|first=Lena H.|date=September 12, 2020|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>
Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that [[hydroxychloroquine]] had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite.<ref name="Diamond" /> In emails Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to "hurt the president" and writing "hit pieces on the administration".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/12/us/politics/trump-coronavirus-politics-cdc.html |last1=Weiland |first1=Noah |last2=Stolberg |first2=Sheryl Gay |last3=Goodnough |first3=Abby |url-access=subscription |title=Political Appointees Meddled in C.D.C.'s 'Holiest of the Holy' Health Reports|date=September 12, 2020|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>
In October 2020, emails obtained by ''Politico'' showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Diamond |first1=Dan |title=Trump official pressured CDC to change report on Covid and kids |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/10/05/trump-cdc-coronavirus-report-change-425538 |website=[[Politico]]|date=October 5, 2020 |access-date=October 7, 2020}}</ref>
==== Eroding trust in the CDC as a result of COVID-19 controversies ====
A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Monroe|first=Madeline|date=2020-09-15|title=Polls show trust in scientific, political institutions eroding|url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/516412-polls-show-trust-in-scientific-political-institutions-eroding/|access-date=2020-11-15|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|language=en}}</ref> By January 2022, according to an [[NBC News]] poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hamblin |first=James |date=2022-03-12 |title=Can Public Health Be Saved? |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/12/opinion/public-health-trust.html |access-date=2022-04-01 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> The diminishing level of trust in the CDC and the information releases also incited "[[vaccine hesitancy]]" with the result that "just 53 percent of Americans said they would be somewhat or extremely likely to get a vaccine."<ref name=":2" />
In September 2020, amid the accusations and the faltering image of the CDC, the agency's leadership was called into question. Former acting director at the CDC, [[Richard E. Besser|Richard Besser]], said of Redfield that "I find it concerning that the CDC director has not been outspoken when there have been instances of clear political interference in the interpretation of science."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2020-09-16|title=CDC director is seen as allowing agency to buckle to political influence|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/09/16/as-controversies-swirl-cdc-director-is-seen-as-allowing-agency-to-buckle-to-political-influence/|access-date=2020-11-15|website=STAT|language=en-US}}</ref> In addition, [[Mark L. Rosenberg|Mark Rosenberg]], the first director of CDC's [[National Center for Injury Prevention and Control]], also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science.<ref name=":3" />
Historically, the CDC has not been a political agency; however, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and specifically the Trump administration's handling of the pandemic, resulted in a "dangerous shift" according to a previous CDC director and others. Four previous directors claim that the agency's voice was "muted for political reasons."<ref>{{cite web |title=CDC's politicization 'extremely dangerous' for Americans, says its former head |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/cdcs-politicization-extremely-dangerous-for-americans-says-its-former-head |website=[[PBS NewsHour]] |date=July 14, 2020 |access-date=May 7, 2021}}</ref> Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance<ref>{{cite web |title=New CDC guidance won't end NY mask mandate yet, Cuomo says |url=https://www.lohud.com/story/news/coronavirus/2021/05/13/cdc-guidance-mask-mandate-new-york-cuomo/5081053001/ |website=Iohud |access-date=May 15, 2021}}</ref> and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding".<ref>{{cite web |title='CDC's credibility is eroding' amid conflicting mask guidance, ex-Obama official says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/11/cdcs-credibility-is-eroding-amid-conflicting-mask-guidance-ex-obama-official-says.html |website=[[CNBC]]|date=May 12, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021}}</ref>
In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|mask-wearing guidance]], and the state of the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chow|first=Denise|date=2021-04-06|title=CDC's messaging problem highlights pandemic's uncertain future|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/cdcs-messaging-problem-highlights-pandemics-uncertain-future-rcna602|access-date=2021-04-17|website=[[NBC News]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Stanley-Becker |first1=Isaac |last2=Guarino |first2=Ben |last3=Stead Sellers |first3=Frances |last4=Eunjung Cha |first4=Ariana |last5=Sun |first5=Lena H. |title=CDC's mask guidance spurs confusion and criticism, as well as celebration |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/05/14/cdc-mask-update-decision-confusion/ |access-date=May 16, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=May 15, 2021}}</ref>


== Publications ==
== Publications ==
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