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'''Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr.'''{{efn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛr|əl|d}} {{respell|JERR|əld}}<ref>{{cite web |title=President Ford Inaugural Ceremony |url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?8670-1/president-gerald-fords-inaugural-ceremony |website=C-SPAN.org |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |access-date=January 25, 2021 |date=August 9, 1974 |archive-date=January 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105003734/https://www.c-span.org/video/?8670-1/president-gerald-fords-inaugural-ceremony |url-status=live }}</ref>}} (born '''Leslie Lynch King Jr.'''; July 14, 1913{{spnd}}December 26, 2006) was the 38th [[president of the United States]], serving from 1974 to 1977. A member of the | '''Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr.'''{{efn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛr|əl|d}} {{respell|JERR|əld}}<ref>{{cite web |title=President Ford Inaugural Ceremony |url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?8670-1/president-gerald-fords-inaugural-ceremony |website=C-SPAN.org |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |access-date=January 25, 2021 |date=August 9, 1974 |archive-date=January 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105003734/https://www.c-span.org/video/?8670-1/president-gerald-fords-inaugural-ceremony |url-status=live }}</ref>}} (born '''Leslie Lynch King Jr.'''; July 14, 1913{{spnd}}December 26, 2006) was the 38th [[president of the United States]], serving from 1974 to 1977. A member of the Republican Party, Ford assumed the presidency after President [[Richard Nixon]] resigned, under whom he had served as the 40th [[vice president of the United States|vice president]] from 1973 to 1974. Prior to that, he served as a member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] from 1949 to 1973. | ||
Ford was born in [[Omaha, Nebraska]] and raised in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]. He attended the [[University of Michigan]], where he played for [[Michigan Wolverines football|the school's football team]], before eventually attending [[Yale Law School]]. Afterward, he served in the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] from 1942 to 1946. Ford began his political career in 1949 as the U.S. representative from [[Michigan's 5th congressional district]], serving in this capacity for nearly 25 years, the final nine of them as the [[House minority leader]]. In December 1973, two months after [[Spiro Agnew]]'s resignation, Ford became the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]]. After the subsequent resignation of Nixon in August 1974, Ford immediately assumed the presidency. | Ford was born in [[Omaha, Nebraska]] and raised in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]. He attended the [[University of Michigan]], where he played for [[Michigan Wolverines football|the school's football team]], before eventually attending [[Yale Law School]]. Afterward, he served in the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] from 1942 to 1946. Ford began his political career in 1949 as the U.S. representative from [[Michigan's 5th congressional district]], serving in this capacity for nearly 25 years, the final nine of them as the [[House minority leader]]. In December 1973, two months after [[Spiro Agnew]]'s resignation, Ford became the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]]. After the subsequent resignation of Nixon in August 1974, Ford immediately assumed the presidency. | ||
Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the [[Great Depression]], with growing inflation and [[1973–1975 recession|a recession]].<ref name="'70s">{{cite book|title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|author-link= David Frum|year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York City|isbn=978-0-465-04195-4|pages= xxiii, 301|url= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum}}</ref> In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a [[presidential pardon to Nixon]] for his role in the [[Watergate scandal]]. Foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president.<!-- (Please keep hidden until fully developed below) "This was made clear by developments in two major substantive issues during Ford's presidency: the Cyprus crisis and Arab Israeli relations." --><ref name="Lenczowski">{{cite book|first=George|last=Lenczowski|title=American Presidents, and the Middle East|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8223-0972-7|pages=142–143|publisher=Duke University Press|author-link=George Lenczowski}}</ref> Ford signed the [[Helsinki Accords]], which marked a move toward ''[[détente]]'' in the [[Cold War]]. With the collapse of [[South Vietnam]] nine months into his presidency, [[U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War]] essentially ended. In the [[1976 Republican Party presidential primaries|1976 Republican presidential primary]], he defeated [[Ronald Reagan]] for the Republican nomination, but narrowly lost the presidential election to the | Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the [[Great Depression]], with growing inflation and [[1973–1975 recession|a recession]].<ref name="'70s">{{cite book|title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|author-link= David Frum|year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York City|isbn=978-0-465-04195-4|pages= xxiii, 301|url= https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum}}</ref> In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a [[presidential pardon to Nixon]] for his role in the [[Watergate scandal]]. Foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president.<!-- (Please keep hidden until fully developed below) "This was made clear by developments in two major substantive issues during Ford's presidency: the Cyprus crisis and Arab Israeli relations." --><ref name="Lenczowski">{{cite book|first=George|last=Lenczowski|title=American Presidents, and the Middle East|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8223-0972-7|pages=142–143|publisher=Duke University Press|author-link=George Lenczowski}}</ref> Ford signed the [[Helsinki Accords]], which marked a move toward ''[[détente]]'' in the [[Cold War]]. With the collapse of [[South Vietnam]] nine months into his presidency, [[U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War]] essentially ended. In the [[1976 Republican Party presidential primaries|1976 Republican presidential primary]], he defeated [[Ronald Reagan]] for the Republican nomination, but narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic candidate, [[Jimmy Carter]]. Ford remains the only person to serve as president without winning an election for president or vice president. | ||
Following his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party, but his moderate views on various social issues increasingly put him at odds with conservative members of the party in the 1990s and early 2000s. He also set aside the enmity he had felt towards Carter following the 1976 election and the two former presidents developed a close friendship. After experiencing a series of health problems, he [[Death and state funeral of Gerald Ford|died in Rancho Mirage, California]] in 2006. Surveys of historians and political scientists [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|have ranked]] Ford as a below-average president,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/02/16/presidential.survey/|title=Lincoln Wins: Honest Abe tops new presidential survey|publisher= | Following his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party, but his moderate views on various social issues increasingly put him at odds with conservative members of the party in the 1990s and early 2000s. He also set aside the enmity he had felt towards Carter following the 1976 election and the two former presidents developed a close friendship. After experiencing a series of health problems, he [[Death and state funeral of Gerald Ford|died in Rancho Mirage, California]] in 2006. Surveys of historians and political scientists [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|have ranked]] Ford as a below-average president,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/02/16/presidential.survey/|title=Lincoln Wins: Honest Abe tops new presidential survey|publisher=CNN|date=February 16, 2009|access-date=December 2, 2020|archive-date=April 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210404080715/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/02/16/presidential.survey/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|publisher=C-SPAN|access-date=December 2, 2020|archive-date=March 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301043807/https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Presidents 2018 Rank by Category|url=https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Presidents-2018-Rank-by-Category.pdf|access-date=December 2, 2020|archive-date=February 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220062843/https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Presidents-2018-Rank-by-Category.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> though retrospective public polls on his time in office were more positive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/23995/Gerald-Ford-Retrospective.aspx|title=Gerald Ford Retrospective|date=December 29, 2006|publisher=[[Gallup, Inc.]]|access-date=January 5, 2023|archive-date=May 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521142231/https://news.gallup.com/poll/23995/Gerald-Ford-Retrospective.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/polls-fords-image-improved-over-time/|title=Polls: Ford's Image Improved Over Time|publisher=[[CBS News]]|date=December 27, 2006|access-date=January 5, 2023|archive-date=January 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106035223/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/polls-fords-image-improved-over-time/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked.<ref name="Winget">{{cite book|author=Winget, Mary Mueller|title=Gerald R. Ford|year=2007|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzL6X3Dv_SYC|access-date=September 3, 2009|isbn=978-0-8225-1509-8|archive-date=September 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924195009/https://books.google.com/books?id=pzL6X3Dv_SYC|url-status=live}}</ref> Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.<ref>{{cite news|first=Melissa |last=Kruse |url=http://victorianrevivalbirdhouses.com/barnhistory.html |title=The Patterson Barn, Grand Rapids, Michigan—Barn razing erases vintage landmark |work=The Grand Rapids Press |date=January 3, 2003 |page=D1 |access-date=September 3, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429035846/http://victorianrevivalbirdhouses.com/barnhistory.html |archive-date=April 29, 2011 }}</ref> | During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked.<ref name="Winget">{{cite book|author=Winget, Mary Mueller|title=Gerald R. Ford|year=2007|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzL6X3Dv_SYC|access-date=September 3, 2009|isbn=978-0-8225-1509-8|archive-date=September 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924195009/https://books.google.com/books?id=pzL6X3Dv_SYC|url-status=live}}</ref> Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.<ref>{{cite news|first=Melissa |last=Kruse |url=http://victorianrevivalbirdhouses.com/barnhistory.html |title=The Patterson Barn, Grand Rapids, Michigan—Barn razing erases vintage landmark |work=The Grand Rapids Press |date=January 3, 2003 |page=D1 |access-date=September 3, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429035846/http://victorianrevivalbirdhouses.com/barnhistory.html |archive-date=April 29, 2011 }}</ref> | ||
Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding [[Michigan's 5th congressional district]] seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in '' | Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding [[Michigan's 5th congressional district]] seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in ''The New York Times'' described him, Ford "saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career."<ref name="nyt-editorial">{{cite news |date=December 28, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/opinion/28thur1.html |title=Gerald R. Ford |work=The New York Times |access-date=December 29, 2006 |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220050832/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/opinion/28thur1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Appointed to the [[United States House Committee on Appropriations|House Appropriations Committee]] two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the [[United States House Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense|Defense Appropriations Subcommittee]]. Ford described his philosophy as "a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/about/presidents/geraldford/|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|title=Gerald R. Ford|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|access-date=October 25, 2009|archive-date=December 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225140536/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/about/presidents/geraldford/%20|url-status=live}}</ref> He voted in favor of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957|Civil Rights Acts of 1957]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=House – June 18, 1957|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=103|issue=7|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=9518|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt7/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt7-8-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=October 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008164237/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt7/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt7-8-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=House – August 27, 1957|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=103|issue=12|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|pages=16112–16113|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12-4-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=October 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008164310/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1957-pt12-4-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Civil Rights Act of 1960|1960]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=House – March 24, 1960|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=106|issue=5|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=6512|url=https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1960/03/24/house-section|access-date=August 21, 2023|archive-date=August 21, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230821123414/https://www.congress.gov/bound-congressional-record/1960/03/24/house-section|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=House – April 21, 1960|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=106|issue=7|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|pages=8507–8508|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1960-pt7/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1960-pt7-2-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=March 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317215938/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1960-pt7/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1960-pt7-2-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|1964]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=House – February 10, 1964|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=110|issue=2|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|pages=2804–2805|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt2/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt2-10-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=March 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317215522/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt2/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt2-10-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=House – July 2, 1964|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=110|issue=12|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=15897|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt12-4-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=March 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317215801/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt12-4-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|1968]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=House – August 16, 1967|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=113|issue=17|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=22778|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1967-pt17/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1967-pt17-5-1.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=January 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121202124/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1967-pt17/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1967-pt17-5-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=House – April 10, 1968|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=114|issue=8|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=9621|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1968-pt8/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1968-pt8-1-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=February 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228022757/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1968-pt8/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1968-pt8-1-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as the [[Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]] and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=House – August 27, 1962|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=108|issue=13|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=17670|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1962-pt13/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1962-pt13-7-1.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=March 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317215704/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1962-pt13/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1962-pt13-7-1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=House – July 9, 1965|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=111|issue=12|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|pages=16285–16286|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt12-3-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=December 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204070445/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt12/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt12-3-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=House – August 3, 1965|journal=[[Congressional Record]]|volume=111|issue=14|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|U.S. Government Printing Office]]|page=19201|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt14/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt14-5-2.pdf|access-date=February 27, 2022|archive-date=March 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306104521/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt14/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt14-5-2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a "Congressman's Congressman".<ref>''[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c111:H.+Res.+409: Celebrating the life of President Gerald R. Ford on what would have been his 96th birthday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415012225/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c111:H.+Res.+409: |date=April 15, 2016 }},'' H.R. 409, [[111th United States Congress|111th Congress]], 1st Session (2009).</ref> | ||
In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become [[United States Speaker of the House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ford.utexas.edu/grf/fordbiop.asp |title=Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum |publisher=Ford.utexas.edu |access-date=August 9, 2009 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724191456/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/grf/fordbiop.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> which he called "the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be the head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind ... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives".{{r|deathofford}} | In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become [[United States Speaker of the House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ford.utexas.edu/grf/fordbiop.asp |title=Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum |publisher=Ford.utexas.edu |access-date=August 9, 2009 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724191456/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/grf/fordbiop.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> which he called "the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be the head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind ... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives".{{r|deathofford}} | ||
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[[File:Lbj-wc.jpg|thumb|The [[Warren Commission]] (Ford 4th from left) presents its report to President Johnson (1964).]] | [[File:Lbj-wc.jpg|thumb|The [[Warren Commission]] (Ford 4th from left) presents its report to President Johnson (1964).]] | ||
On November 29, 1963, President | On November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the [[Warren Commission]], a special task force set up to investigate the [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination]] of President [[John F. Kennedy]].<ref name="Miller Center of Public Affairs">{{cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/presidentialclassroom/exhibits/lbj-appoints-gerald-ford-to-the-warren-commission |title=LBJ Appoints Gerald Ford to the Warren Commission |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs |access-date=August 20, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925144354/http://millercenter.org/presidentialclassroom/exhibits/lbj-appoints-gerald-ford-to-the-warren-commission |archive-date=September 25, 2015 }}</ref> Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of accused assassin [[Lee Harvey Oswald]]. He and [[Earl Warren]] also interviewed [[Jack Ruby]], Oswald's killer. According to a 1963 [[FBI]] memo that was released to the public in 2008, Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director, [[Cartha DeLoach]], about the panel's activities.<ref name="WarrenJustice">{{cite book|title=Justice for All: Earl Warren and the Nation He Made|last=Newton|first=Jim|publisher=Penguin Group|year=2007|isbn=978-1-59448-270-0}}</ref><ref name="WPostFBI">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/07/AR2008080702757.html|title=Ford Told FBI of Skeptics on Warren Commission|last=Stephens|first=Joe|date=August 8, 2008|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=September 8, 2009|archive-date=May 1, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501151341/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/07/AR2008080702757.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="FBI File">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-08-09-ford-fbi-file_N.htm|title=Ford told FBI about panel's doubts on JFK murder|work=USA Today|date=August 9, 2008|access-date=September 2, 2009|archive-date=November 6, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081106005356/http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-08-09-ford-fbi-file_N.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In the preface to his book, ''A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission'', Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Ford | first=Gerald R. | title=A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission | year=2007|publisher=The FlatSigned Press|isbn=978-1-934304-02-0 | url=https://archive.org/details/presidentiallega00gera| url-access=registration }}</ref> | ||
===House Minority Leader (1965–1973)=== | ===House Minority Leader (1965–1973)=== | ||
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With a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the "[[Great Society]]". During the first session of the [[Eighty-ninth Congress]] alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.<ref name="unger104">Unger, Irwin, 1996: 'The Best of Intentions: the triumphs and failures of the Great Society under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon': Doubleday, p. 104.</ref> | With a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the "[[Great Society]]". During the first session of the [[Eighty-ninth Congress]] alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.<ref name="unger104">Unger, Irwin, 1996: 'The Best of Intentions: the triumphs and failures of the Great Society under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon': Doubleday, p. 104.</ref> | ||
In 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the | In 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the [[1966 United States House of Representatives elections|1966 midterm elections]] produced a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans. This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House, but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs.<ref name="mastersDavidson" /> | ||
Ford's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public knowledge after he spoke from the floor of the House and questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion.<ref name="mastersDavidson" /> The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of having played "too much football without a helmet".<ref name="mastersDavidson" /><ref name="Timesteady">{{cite magazine|title=Gerald Ford: Steady Hand for a Nation in Crisis|magazine=Time |author=Gray, Paul|date=December 27, 2006|access-date=September 16, 2009|url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1572927,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070108195345/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1572927,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 8, 2007}}</ref> | Ford's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public knowledge after he spoke from the floor of the House and questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion.<ref name="mastersDavidson" /> The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of having played "too much football without a helmet".<ref name="mastersDavidson" /><ref name="Timesteady">{{cite magazine|title=Gerald Ford: Steady Hand for a Nation in Crisis|magazine=Time |author=Gray, Paul|date=December 27, 2006|access-date=September 16, 2009|url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1572927,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070108195345/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1572927,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 8, 2007}}</ref> | ||
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[[File:Mr. and Mrs. Ford and Nixon 13 Oct 1973.jpg|thumb|alt=Two women are flanked by two men in suits, standing in a room of the White House.|Gerald and Betty Ford with the President and First Lady [[Pat Nixon]] after President Nixon nominated Ford to be vice president, October 13, 1973]] | [[File:Mr. and Mrs. Ford and Nixon 13 Oct 1973.jpg|thumb|alt=Two women are flanked by two men in suits, standing in a room of the White House.|Gerald and Betty Ford with the President and First Lady [[Pat Nixon]] after President Nixon nominated Ford to be vice president, October 13, 1973]] | ||
For the past decade, Ford had been unsuccessfully working to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber so that he could become [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]]. He promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976.{{r|deathofford}} However, on October 10, 1973, [[Spiro Agnew]] resigned from the vice presidency.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Naughton |first1=James M. |title=Judge Orders Fine, 3 Years' Probation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/11/archives/judge-orders-fine-3-years-probation-tells-court-income-was-taxable.html |access-date=August 28, 2020 |work= | For the past decade, Ford had been unsuccessfully working to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber so that he could become [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]]. He promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976.{{r|deathofford}} However, on October 10, 1973, [[Spiro Agnew]] resigned from the vice presidency.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Naughton |first1=James M. |title=Judge Orders Fine, 3 Years' Probation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/11/archives/judge-orders-fine-3-years-probation-tells-court-income-was-taxable.html |access-date=August 28, 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=October 11, 1973 |archive-date=December 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211044906/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/11/archives/judge-orders-fine-3-years-probation-tells-court-income-was-taxable.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''The New York Times'', Nixon "sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement." The advice was unanimous. House Speaker [[Carl Albert]] recalled later, "We gave Nixon no choice but Ford."<ref name="nyt-editorial" /> Ford agreed to the nomination, telling his wife that the vice presidency would be "a nice conclusion" to his career.{{r|deathofford}} Ford was nominated to take Agnew's position on October 12, the first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]] had been implemented. The [[United States Senate]] voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27. On December 6, the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35. [[1973 United States vice presidential confirmation|After the confirmation vote]] in the House, Ford took the oath of office as vice president.<ref name="librarybio"/> | ||
Ford became vice president as the [[Watergate scandal]] was unfolding. On August 1, 1974, [[White House Chief of Staff|Chief of Staff]] [[Alexander Haig]] contacted Ford to tell him to prepare for the presidency.<ref name="librarybio"/> At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated [[Number One Observatory Circle|vice president's residence]] in Washington, D.C. However, "Al Haig asked to come over and see me", Ford later said, "to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.' And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house.{{'"}}<ref name="kunhardt" /> | Ford became vice president as the [[Watergate scandal]] was unfolding. On August 1, 1974, [[White House Chief of Staff|Chief of Staff]] [[Alexander Haig]] contacted Ford to tell him to prepare for the presidency.<ref name="librarybio"/> At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated [[Number One Observatory Circle|vice president's residence]] in Washington, D.C. However, "Al Haig asked to come over and see me", Ford later said, "to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.' And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house.{{'"}}<ref name="kunhardt" /> | ||
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On September 8, 1974, Ford issued [[:wikisource:Proclamation 4311|Proclamation 4311]], which gave Nixon a full and unconditional [[pardon]] for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president.<ref name="pardonspeech">{{cite web |last=Ford |first=Gerald |date=September 8, 1974 |url=http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/740061.htm |title=President Gerald R. Ford's Proclamation 4311, Granting a Pardon to Richard Nixon |website=Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library & Museum |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=December 30, 2006 |archive-date=June 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606105602/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/740061.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="pardonimage">{{cite web|last=Ford|first=Gerald|date=September 8, 1974|url=http://narademo.umiacs.umd.edu/cgi-bin/isadg/viewitem.pl?item=100775|title=Presidential Proclamation 4311 by President Gerald R. Ford granting a pardon to Richard M. Nixon|website=Pardon images|publisher=University of Maryland|access-date=December 30, 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011231200/http://narademo.umiacs.umd.edu/cgi-bin/isadg/viewitem.pl?item=100775|archive-date=October 11, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1974/Ford-Pardons-Nixon/12305808208934-3/ |title=Ford Pardons Nixon – Events of 1974 – Year in Review |publisher=UPI.com |access-date=November 4, 2011 |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429040000/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1974/Ford-Pardons-Nixon/12305808208934-3/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."<ref name="pardonspeech2">{{cite web |last=Ford |first=Gerald |date=September 8, 1974 |url=http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/ford.htm |title=Gerald R. Ford Pardoning Richard Nixon |website=Great Speeches Collection |publisher=The History Place |access-date=December 30, 2006 |archive-date=May 1, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501035624/http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/ford.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | On September 8, 1974, Ford issued [[:wikisource:Proclamation 4311|Proclamation 4311]], which gave Nixon a full and unconditional [[pardon]] for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president.<ref name="pardonspeech">{{cite web |last=Ford |first=Gerald |date=September 8, 1974 |url=http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/740061.htm |title=President Gerald R. Ford's Proclamation 4311, Granting a Pardon to Richard Nixon |website=Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library & Museum |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=December 30, 2006 |archive-date=June 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606105602/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/740061.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="pardonimage">{{cite web|last=Ford|first=Gerald|date=September 8, 1974|url=http://narademo.umiacs.umd.edu/cgi-bin/isadg/viewitem.pl?item=100775|title=Presidential Proclamation 4311 by President Gerald R. Ford granting a pardon to Richard M. Nixon|website=Pardon images|publisher=University of Maryland|access-date=December 30, 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011231200/http://narademo.umiacs.umd.edu/cgi-bin/isadg/viewitem.pl?item=100775|archive-date=October 11, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1974/Ford-Pardons-Nixon/12305808208934-3/ |title=Ford Pardons Nixon – Events of 1974 – Year in Review |publisher=UPI.com |access-date=November 4, 2011 |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429040000/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1974/Ford-Pardons-Nixon/12305808208934-3/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."<ref name="pardonspeech2">{{cite web |last=Ford |first=Gerald |date=September 8, 1974 |url=http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/ford.htm |title=Gerald R. Ford Pardoning Richard Nixon |website=Great Speeches Collection |publisher=The History Place |access-date=December 30, 2006 |archive-date=May 1, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501035624/http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/ford.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
Ford's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a "[[corrupt bargain]]" had been struck between the two men,<ref name="kunhardt" /> in which Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend [[Jerald terHorst]] resigned his post in protest after the pardon.<ref>Brinkley, p. 73</ref> According to [[Bob Woodward]], Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared.<ref name="shanescott">{{cite news |first=Scott |last=Shane |title=For Ford, Pardon Decision Was Always Clear-Cut |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29pardon.html |work=The New York Times |page=A1 |access-date=September 8, 2009 |date=December 29, 2006 |archive-date=May 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511105451/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29pardon.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the [[1976 United States presidential election|1976 presidential election]], an observation with which Ford agreed.<ref name="shanescott" /> In an editorial at the time, ''The New York Times'' stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence".<ref name="nyt-editorial" /> On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting president since | Ford's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a "[[corrupt bargain]]" had been struck between the two men,<ref name="kunhardt" /> in which Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend [[Jerald terHorst]] resigned his post in protest after the pardon.<ref>Brinkley, p. 73</ref> According to [[Bob Woodward]], Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared.<ref name="shanescott">{{cite news |first=Scott |last=Shane |title=For Ford, Pardon Decision Was Always Clear-Cut |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29pardon.html |work=The New York Times |page=A1 |access-date=September 8, 2009 |date=December 29, 2006 |archive-date=May 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511105451/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29pardon.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the [[1976 United States presidential election|1976 presidential election]], an observation with which Ford agreed.<ref name="shanescott" /> In an editorial at the time, ''The New York Times'' stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence".<ref name="nyt-editorial" /> On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting president since Abraham Lincoln to testify before the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/162654-1 |title=Ford Testimony on Nixon Pardon – C-SPAN Video Library |publisher=C-spanvideo.org |date=October 17, 1974 |access-date=December 30, 2012 |archive-date=October 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016231541/http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/162654-1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/PresidentsTestify.pdf |title=Sitting presidents and vice presidents who have testified before congressional committees |publisher=Senate.gov |date=2004 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=December 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209072513/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/PresidentsTestify.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
In the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as "my predecessor" or "the former president." When Ford was pressed on the matter on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent [[Fred Barnes (journalist)|Fred Barnes]] recalled that he replied "I just can't bring myself to do it."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/fred-barnes/|title=Fred Barnes on Conversations with Bill Kristol|date=May 24, 2015|access-date=September 13, 2021|archive-date=October 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020162346/http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/fred-barnes/|url-status=live}}</ref> | In the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as "my predecessor" or "the former president." When Ford was pressed on the matter on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent [[Fred Barnes (journalist)|Fred Barnes]] recalled that he replied "I just can't bring myself to do it."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/fred-barnes/|title=Fred Barnes on Conversations with Bill Kristol|date=May 24, 2015|access-date=September 13, 2021|archive-date=October 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020162346/http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/fred-barnes/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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Ford selected George H. W. Bush as [[United States Ambassador to China#List of chiefs of the U.S. Liaison Office in Beijing|Chief of the US Liaison Office]] to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then [[Director of Central Intelligence|Director]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in late 1975.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/bush/|title=George Herbert Walker Bush Profile|work=CNN|access-date=December 31, 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061028112345/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/bush/| archive-date = October 28, 2006}}</ref> | Ford selected George H. W. Bush as [[United States Ambassador to China#List of chiefs of the U.S. Liaison Office in Beijing|Chief of the US Liaison Office]] to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then [[Director of Central Intelligence|Director]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in late 1975.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/bush/|title=George Herbert Walker Bush Profile|work=CNN|access-date=December 31, 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061028112345/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/bush/| archive-date = October 28, 2006}}</ref> | ||
Ford's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador | Ford's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld. In 1975, Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest-ever [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]. Ford chose a young [[Wyoming]] politician, [[Dick Cheney|Richard Cheney]], to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff; Cheney became the [[campaign manager]] for Ford's [[1976 United States presidential election|1976 presidential campaign]].<ref>[http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/secdef_histories/bios/cheney.htm Richard B. Cheney] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990903223409/http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/secdef_histories/bios/cheney.htm |date=September 3, 1999 }}. United States Department of Defense. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</ref> | ||
===Midterm elections=== | ===Midterm elections=== | ||
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[[File:Ford signing accord with Brehznev, November 24, 1974.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men in suits are seated, each signing a document in front of them. Six men, one in a military uniform, stand behind them.|Ford meets with Soviet leader [[Leonid Brezhnev]] to sign a joint [[communiqué]] on the SALT treaty during the [[Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control|Vladivostok Summit]], November 1974.]] | [[File:Ford signing accord with Brehznev, November 24, 1974.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men in suits are seated, each signing a document in front of them. Six men, one in a military uniform, stand behind them.|Ford meets with Soviet leader [[Leonid Brezhnev]] to sign a joint [[communiqué]] on the SALT treaty during the [[Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control|Vladivostok Summit]], November 1974.]] | ||
Ford continued the détente policy with both the | Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the Nixon administration was the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty]] (SALT).<ref name="Challenges1970">{{cite book |last=Mieczkowski |first=Yanek |title=Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|location=Lexington, Kentucky|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8131-2349-3 |pages=283–284, 290–294}}</ref> The thawing relationship brought about by [[1972 Nixon visit to China|Nixon's visit to China]] was reinforced by Ford's own visit in December 1975.<ref name="chinatrip">{{cite web |url=http://www.ford.utexas.edu/avproj/china.htm |title=Trip To China |website=Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=December 31, 2006 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924014527/http://www.ford.utexas.edu/avproj/china.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords<ref name="Helsinki Accords">{{cite web |url=http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/helsinki.html |title=President Gerald R. Ford's Address in Helsinki Before the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe |publisher=USA-presidents.info |access-date=April 4, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010085836/http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/helsinki.html |archive-date=October 10, 2007 }}</ref> with the Soviet Union in 1975, creating the framework of the [[Helsinki Watch]], an independent non-governmental organization created to monitor compliance which later evolved into [[Human Rights Watch]].<ref name="hrw">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/about/whoweare.html |title=About Human Rights Watch |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=December 31, 2006 |archive-date=December 27, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061227201438/https://www.hrw.org/about/whoweare.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the [[Group of Seven]] (G7) industrialized nations (initially the G5) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada. Ford supported international solutions to issues. "We live in an interdependent world and, therefore, must work together to resolve common economic problems," he said in a 1974 speech.<ref name="canadaG7">{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/president-ford-got-canada-into-g7-1.628291 |title=President Ford got Canada into G7 |date=December 27, 2006 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |access-date=December 31, 2006 |archive-date=January 3, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103222303/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2006/12/27/ford-canada.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the [[Group of Seven]] (G7) industrialized nations (initially the G5) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada. Ford supported international solutions to issues. "We live in an interdependent world and, therefore, must work together to resolve common economic problems," he said in a 1974 speech.<ref name="canadaG7">{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/president-ford-got-canada-into-g7-1.628291 |title=President Ford got Canada into G7 |date=December 27, 2006 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |access-date=December 31, 2006 |archive-date=January 3, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103222303/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2006/12/27/ford-canada.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
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[[File:President Gerald Ford and Daughter Susan Watch as Secretary of State Henry Kissinger Shakes Hands with Mao Tse-Tung.jpg|thumb|Ford and his daughter Susan watch as [[Henry Kissinger]] (right) shakes hands with [[Mao Zedong]], December 2, 1975.]] | [[File:President Gerald Ford and Daughter Susan Watch as Secretary of State Henry Kissinger Shakes Hands with Mao Tse-Tung.jpg|thumb|Ford and his daughter Susan watch as [[Henry Kissinger]] (right) shakes hands with [[Mao Zedong]], December 2, 1975.]] | ||
One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing | One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the [[Paris Peace Accords]], signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease-fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American [[POW|prisoners of war]]. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]] of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Church, Peter|title=A Short History of South-East Asia|location=Singapore|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2006|pages=193–194|isbn=978-0-470-82181-7}}</ref> | ||
The agreements were negotiated by [[US National Security Advisor]] [[Henry Kissinger]] and North Vietnamese [[Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Politburo]] member [[Lê Đức Thọ]]. South Vietnamese President [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] was not involved in the final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement. However, anti-war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords.<ref name="Brinkley1">{{cite book|author=Brinkley, Douglas |year=2007 |title=Gerald R. Ford |isbn=978-0-8050-6909-9 |publisher=Times Books |location=New York, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/geraldrford0000brin_o0c0/page/89 89–98] |url=https://archive.org/details/geraldrford0000brin_o0c0/page/89 }}</ref> | The agreements were negotiated by [[US National Security Advisor]] [[Henry Kissinger]] and North Vietnamese [[Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Politburo]] member [[Lê Đức Thọ]]. South Vietnamese President [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] was not involved in the final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement. However, anti-war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords.<ref name="Brinkley1">{{cite book|author=Brinkley, Douglas |year=2007 |title=Gerald R. Ford |isbn=978-0-8050-6909-9 |publisher=Times Books |location=New York, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/geraldrford0000brin_o0c0/page/89 89–98] |url=https://archive.org/details/geraldrford0000brin_o0c0/page/89 }}</ref> | ||
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After leaving the White House, the Fords moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with [[Marvin Davis]], which later provided an income for Ford's children.<ref name="VF">{{cite magazine |first1=Mark |last1=Seal |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2005/11/davis200511 |title=The Man Who Ate Hollywood |magazine=Vanity Fair |access-date=February 19, 2012 |date=November 1, 2005 |archive-date=January 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113090045/http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2005/11/davis200511 |url-status=live }}</ref> | After leaving the White House, the Fords moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with [[Marvin Davis]], which later provided an income for Ford's children.<ref name="VF">{{cite magazine |first1=Mark |last1=Seal |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2005/11/davis200511 |title=The Man Who Ate Hollywood |magazine=Vanity Fair |access-date=February 19, 2012 |date=November 1, 2005 |archive-date=January 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113090045/http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2005/11/davis200511 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of [[Eisenhower Fellowships]] in | He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of [[Eisenhower Fellowships]] in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986.<ref>Perrone, Marguerite. "Eisenhower Fellowship: A History 1953–2003". 2003.</ref> Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a ''New York Times'' journalist who was given the assignment to write the former president's advance obituary, an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication.<ref name="poynterX">{{cite web |last=Naughton |first=James M |date=December 27, 2006 |url=http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=115796 |title=The Real Jerry Ford |publisher=PoynterOnline |access-date=March 31, 2007 |archive-date=April 11, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411172143/http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=115796 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1979, Ford published his autobiography, ''A Time to Heal'' (Harper/Reader's Digest, 454 pages). A review in ''Foreign Affairs'' described it as, "Serene, unruffled, unpretentious, like the author. This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs, but there are no surprises, no deep probings of motives or events. No more here than meets the eye."<ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Gaddis|title=A Time to Heal|website=[[Foreign Affairs]]|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|year=1979|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19790901fabook14015/gerald-r-ford/a-time-to-heal.html|access-date=April 26, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041107135017/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19790901fabook14015/gerald-r-ford/a-time-to-heal.html|archive-date=November 7, 2004}}</ref> | ||
During the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the [[Assassination of Anwar Sadat#Burial|funeral]] of [[Anwar Sadat|Anwar el-Sadat]] in 1981.<ref name="NYTobit">{{cite news |last=Kornblut |first=Anne |date=December 29, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29funeral.html |title=Ford Arranged His Funeral to Reflect Himself and Drew in a Former Adversary |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 4, 2007 |archive-date=March 7, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307182808/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29funeral.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, [[Rosalynn Carter|Rosalynn]], visited the Fords' home frequently.<ref>{{Cite news|last = Updegrove|first = Mark K.|title = Flying Coach to Cairo|magazine = American Heritage|volume = 57|issue = 4|date = August–September 2006|url = http://www.americanheritage.com/content/%E2%80%9Cflying-coach-cairo%E2%80%9D|access-date = September 28, 2011|quote = "Certainly few observers in January 1977 would have predicted that Jimmy and I would become the closest of friends," Ford said in 2000.|archive-date = November 22, 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111122080716/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/%E2%80%9Cflying-coach-cairo%E2%80%9D|url-status = live}}</ref> Ford and Carter served as honorary co-chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the [[Continuity of Government Commission]] in 2002. | During the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the [[Assassination of Anwar Sadat#Burial|funeral]] of [[Anwar Sadat|Anwar el-Sadat]] in 1981.<ref name="NYTobit">{{cite news |last=Kornblut |first=Anne |date=December 29, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29funeral.html |title=Ford Arranged His Funeral to Reflect Himself and Drew in a Former Adversary |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 4, 2007 |archive-date=March 7, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307182808/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29funeral.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, [[Rosalynn Carter|Rosalynn]], visited the Fords' home frequently.<ref>{{Cite news|last = Updegrove|first = Mark K.|title = Flying Coach to Cairo|magazine = American Heritage|volume = 57|issue = 4|date = August–September 2006|url = http://www.americanheritage.com/content/%E2%80%9Cflying-coach-cairo%E2%80%9D|access-date = September 28, 2011|quote = "Certainly few observers in January 1977 would have predicted that Jimmy and I would become the closest of friends," Ford said in 2000.|archive-date = November 22, 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111122080716/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/%E2%80%9Cflying-coach-cairo%E2%80%9D|url-status = live}}</ref> Ford and Carter served as honorary co-chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the [[Continuity of Government Commission]] in 2002. | ||
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By 1988, Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit, Nova Pharmaceutical, [[Pullman Company|The Pullman Company]], [[Tesoro Corporation|Tesoro Petroleum]], and Tiger International, Inc.<ref name="LLC1988">{{cite magazine|magazine=New York Magazine|title=Board Games|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VeUCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19|access-date=February 19, 2012|date=January 25, 1988|publisher=LLC|pages=19–|issn=0028-7369|archive-date=September 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924195011/https://books.google.com/books?id=VeUCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19|url-status=live}}</ref> Ford also became an honorary director of [[Citigroup]], a position he held until his death.<ref name="WSJ">{{cite web | url=https://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2006/12/27/ford%E2%80%99s-citigroup-connection/ | title=Ford's Citigroup Connection | website=The Wall Street Journal | access-date=February 19, 2012 | date=December 27, 2006 | archive-date=November 24, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124095807/http://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2006/12/27/ford%E2%80%99s-citigroup-connection/ | url-status=live }}</ref> | By 1988, Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit, Nova Pharmaceutical, [[Pullman Company|The Pullman Company]], [[Tesoro Corporation|Tesoro Petroleum]], and Tiger International, Inc.<ref name="LLC1988">{{cite magazine|magazine=New York Magazine|title=Board Games|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VeUCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19|access-date=February 19, 2012|date=January 25, 1988|publisher=LLC|pages=19–|issn=0028-7369|archive-date=September 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924195011/https://books.google.com/books?id=VeUCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19|url-status=live}}</ref> Ford also became an honorary director of [[Citigroup]], a position he held until his death.<ref name="WSJ">{{cite web | url=https://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2006/12/27/ford%E2%80%99s-citigroup-connection/ | title=Ford's Citigroup Connection | website=The Wall Street Journal | access-date=February 19, 2012 | date=December 27, 2006 | archive-date=November 24, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124095807/http://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2006/12/27/ford%E2%80%99s-citigroup-connection/ | url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
In October 1990, Ford appeared in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]] with [[Bob Hope]] to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the birth of former president | In October 1990, Ford appeared in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]] with [[Bob Hope]] to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the birth of former president Dwight D. Eisenhower, where the two unveiled a plaque with the signatures of each living former president.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/10/14/Ike-commemorated-with-100th-birthday-bash/8074655876800/|title=Ike commemorated with 100th birthday bash|date=October 14, 1990|publisher=UPI|access-date=October 11, 2017|archive-date=October 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011130507/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/10/14/Ike-commemorated-with-100th-birthday-bash/8074655876800/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
In April 1991, Ford joined former presidents [[Richard Nixon]], [[Ronald Reagan]], and [[Jimmy Carter]], in supporting the [[Brady Bill]].<ref name=AP910429>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=April 29, 1991 |title=Carter, Ford Join Other Former Presidents in Backing Gun Bill |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-04-29-mn-709-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |agency=Associated Press |access-date=July 4, 2014 |archive-date=July 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714233123/http://articles.latimes.com/1991-04-29/news/mn-709_1_brady-bill |url-status=live }}</ref> Three years later, he wrote to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], along with Carter and Reagan, in support of the [[Federal Assault Weapons Ban|assault weapons ban]].<ref name=Eaton940505>{{cite news |last=Eaton |first=William J. |date=May 5, 1994 |title=Ford, Carter, Reagan Push for Gun Ban |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-05-05-mn-54185-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=July 4, 2014 |archive-date=September 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910132000/http://articles.latimes.com/1994-05-05/news/mn-54185_1_assault-weapons-ban/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> | In April 1991, Ford joined former presidents [[Richard Nixon]], [[Ronald Reagan]], and [[Jimmy Carter]], in supporting the [[Brady Bill]].<ref name=AP910429>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=April 29, 1991 |title=Carter, Ford Join Other Former Presidents in Backing Gun Bill |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-04-29-mn-709-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |agency=Associated Press |access-date=July 4, 2014 |archive-date=July 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714233123/http://articles.latimes.com/1991-04-29/news/mn-709_1_brady-bill |url-status=live }}</ref> Three years later, he wrote to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], along with Carter and Reagan, in support of the [[Federal Assault Weapons Ban|assault weapons ban]].<ref name=Eaton940505>{{cite news |last=Eaton |first=William J. |date=May 5, 1994 |title=Ford, Carter, Reagan Push for Gun Ban |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-05-05-mn-54185-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=July 4, 2014 |archive-date=September 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910132000/http://articles.latimes.com/1994-05-05/news/mn-54185_1_assault-weapons-ban/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
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[[File:President Bill Clinton with former Presidents George H. W. Bush, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter.jpg|thumb|Ford joins President [[Bill Clinton]] and former presidents [[George H. W. Bush]] and Jimmy Carter onstage at the dedication of the [[George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] at [[Texas A&M University]], November 6, 1997.]] | [[File:President Bill Clinton with former Presidents George H. W. Bush, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter.jpg|thumb|Ford joins President [[Bill Clinton]] and former presidents [[George H. W. Bush]] and Jimmy Carter onstage at the dedication of the [[George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] at [[Texas A&M University]], November 6, 1997.]] | ||
[[File:Presford90.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men in suits are flanked by two women in formal dresses, standing beside a large birthday cake with lit candles and flowers. The cake is decorated with the text "Happy 90th Birthday President Ford".|Ford at his 90th birthday with [[Laura Bush]], President | [[File:Presford90.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men in suits are flanked by two women in formal dresses, standing beside a large birthday cake with lit candles and flowers. The cake is decorated with the text "Happy 90th Birthday President Ford".|Ford at his 90th birthday with [[Laura Bush]], President George W. Bush, and Betty Ford in the White House [[State Dining Room]] in 2003]] | ||
In April 1997, Ford joined President [[Bill Clinton]], former president Bush, and [[Nancy Reagan]] in signing the "Summit Declaration of Commitment" in advocating for participation by private citizens in solving domestic issues within the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/29/us/presidents-call-for-big-citizenship-not-big-government.html|title=Presidents Call for Big Citizenship, Not Big Government|first=James|last=Bennet|date=April 29, 1997|work= | In April 1997, Ford joined President [[Bill Clinton]], former president Bush, and [[Nancy Reagan]] in signing the "Summit Declaration of Commitment" in advocating for participation by private citizens in solving domestic issues within the United States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/29/us/presidents-call-for-big-citizenship-not-big-government.html|title=Presidents Call for Big Citizenship, Not Big Government|first=James|last=Bennet|date=April 29, 1997|work=The New York Times|access-date=December 19, 2017|archive-date=April 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428023332/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/29/us/presidents-call-for-big-citizenship-not-big-government.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
On January 20, 1998, during an interview at his Palm Springs home, Ford said the Republican Party's nominee in the 2000 presidential election would lose if the party turned ultra-conservative in their ideals: "If we get way over on the hard right of the political spectrum, we will not elect a Republican President. I worry about the party going down this ultra-conservative line. We ought to learn from the Democrats: when they were running ultra-liberal candidates, they didn't win."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/20/us/ford-urges-gop-to-drop-abortion-issue-and-shift-center.html|title=Ford Urges G.O.P. to Drop Abortion Issue and Shift Center|first=Richard L.|last=Berke|work= | On January 20, 1998, during an interview at his Palm Springs home, Ford said the Republican Party's nominee in the 2000 presidential election would lose if the party turned ultra-conservative in their ideals: "If we get way over on the hard right of the political spectrum, we will not elect a Republican President. I worry about the party going down this ultra-conservative line. We ought to learn from the Democrats: when they were running ultra-liberal candidates, they didn't win."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/20/us/ford-urges-gop-to-drop-abortion-issue-and-shift-center.html|title=Ford Urges G.O.P. to Drop Abortion Issue and Shift Center|first=Richard L.|last=Berke|work=The New York Times|date=January 20, 1998|access-date=December 19, 2017|archive-date=January 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120225504/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/01/20/us/ford-urges-gop-to-drop-abortion-issue-and-shift-center.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
In the prelude to the impeachment of President Clinton, Ford conferred with former president Carter and the two agreed to not speak publicly on the controversy, a pact broken by Carter when answering a question from a student at [[Emory University]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/1998/September/erseptember.28/9_28_98Carter.html|title=Carter breaks silence on Clinton, says nation will heal|date=September 28, 1998|publisher=Emory|access-date=August 17, 2017|archive-date=October 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015120516/http://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/1998/September/erseptember.28/9_28_98Carter.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | In the prelude to the impeachment of President Clinton, Ford conferred with former president Carter and the two agreed to not speak publicly on the controversy, a pact broken by Carter when answering a question from a student at [[Emory University]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/1998/September/erseptember.28/9_28_98Carter.html|title=Carter breaks silence on Clinton, says nation will heal|date=September 28, 1998|publisher=Emory|access-date=August 17, 2017|archive-date=October 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015120516/http://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/1998/September/erseptember.28/9_28_98Carter.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
In October 2001, Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican Party by stating that gay and lesbian couples "ought to be treated equally. Period." He became the highest-ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians, stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti-gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters.<ref>Price, Deb. [http://pageoneq.com/news/2006/ford122806.html "Gerald Ford: Treat gay couples equally"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021813/http://pageoneq.com/news/2006/ford122806.html |date=January 20, 2013 }}. ''The Detroit News'', October 29, 2001. Retrieved December 28, 2006</ref> He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition, which '' | In October 2001, Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican Party by stating that gay and lesbian couples "ought to be treated equally. Period." He became the highest-ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians, stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti-gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters.<ref>Price, Deb. [http://pageoneq.com/news/2006/ford122806.html "Gerald Ford: Treat gay couples equally"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021813/http://pageoneq.com/news/2006/ford122806.html |date=January 20, 2013 }}. ''The Detroit News'', October 29, 2001. Retrieved December 28, 2006</ref> He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition, which ''The New York Times'' described as "a group of prominent Republicans, including former President Gerald R. Ford, dedicated to making sexual orientation a non-issue in the Republican Party".<ref>Stolberg, Sheryl Gay. "Vocal Gay Republicans Upsetting Conservatives", ''The New York Times'', June 1, 2003, p. N26.</ref> | ||
On November 22, 2004, New York Republican governor [[George Pataki]] named Ford and the other living former presidents (Carter, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center site|World Trade Center]]. | On November 22, 2004, New York Republican governor [[George Pataki]] named Ford and the other living former presidents (Carter, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center site|World Trade Center]]. | ||
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On April 4, 1990, Ford was admitted to [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] for surgery to replace his left knee, orthopedic surgeon Robert Murphy saying, "Ford's entire left knee was replaced with an artificial joint, including portions of the adjacent femur, or thigh bone, and tibia, or leg bone."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/04/04/Ford-undergoes-knee-surgery/1726639201600/|title=Ford undergoes knee surgery|date=April 4, 1990|publisher=UPI|access-date=November 26, 2017|archive-date=December 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044301/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/04/04/Ford-undergoes-knee-surgery/1726639201600/|url-status=live}}</ref> | On April 4, 1990, Ford was admitted to [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] for surgery to replace his left knee, orthopedic surgeon Robert Murphy saying, "Ford's entire left knee was replaced with an artificial joint, including portions of the adjacent femur, or thigh bone, and tibia, or leg bone."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/04/04/Ford-undergoes-knee-surgery/1726639201600/|title=Ford undergoes knee surgery|date=April 4, 1990|publisher=UPI|access-date=November 26, 2017|archive-date=December 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044301/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/04/04/Ford-undergoes-knee-surgery/1726639201600/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
Ford suffered two minor strokes at the [[2000 Republican National Convention]], but made a quick recovery after being admitted to [[Hahnemann University Hospital]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/863937.stm "Gerald Ford recovering after strokes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319012847/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/863937.stm |date=March 19, 2021 }}. ''[[BBC]]'', August 2, 2000. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ayres |first=B. Drummond Jr. |date=August 3, 2000 |title=Hospitalized After Suffering a Stroke, Former President Ford Is Expected to Fully Recover |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/03/us/hospitalized-after-suffering-stroke-former-president-ford-expected-fully-recover.html |access-date=December 1, 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=December 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202021510/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/03/us/hospitalized-after-suffering-stroke-former-president-ford-expected-fully-recover.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] near his residence at [[Rancho Mirage, California]], for treatment of [[pneumonia]].<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-16-ford-hospitalized_x.htm Former "President Ford, 92, hospitalized with pneumonia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501054710/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-16-ford-hospitalized_x.htm |date=May 1, 2011 }}. '' | Ford suffered two minor strokes at the [[2000 Republican National Convention]], but made a quick recovery after being admitted to [[Hahnemann University Hospital]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/863937.stm "Gerald Ford recovering after strokes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319012847/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/863937.stm |date=March 19, 2021 }}. ''[[BBC]]'', August 2, 2000. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ayres |first=B. Drummond Jr. |date=August 3, 2000 |title=Hospitalized After Suffering a Stroke, Former President Ford Is Expected to Fully Recover |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/03/us/hospitalized-after-suffering-stroke-former-president-ford-expected-fully-recover.html |access-date=December 1, 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=December 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202021510/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/03/us/hospitalized-after-suffering-stroke-former-president-ford-expected-fully-recover.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] near his residence at [[Rancho Mirage, California]], for treatment of [[pneumonia]].<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-16-ford-hospitalized_x.htm Former "President Ford, 92, hospitalized with pneumonia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501054710/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-16-ford-hospitalized_x.htm |date=May 1, 2011 }}. ''USA Today'', Associated Press, January 17, 2006. Retrieved October 19, 2007.</ref> On April 23, 2006, President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour. This was Ford's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos, video footage, and voice recording. | ||
While vacationing in [[Vail, Colorado]], Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath.<ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna14043669 "Gerald Ford released from hospital"] . NBC News, | While vacationing in [[Vail, Colorado]], Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath.<ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna14043669 "Gerald Ford released from hospital"] . NBC News, Associated Press, July 26, 2006. Retrieved December 31, 2006.</ref> On August 15 he was admitted to St. Mary's Hospital of the [[Mayo Clinic]] in [[Rochester, Minnesota]], for testing and evaluation. On August 21, it was reported that he had been fitted with a [[artificial pacemaker|pacemaker]]. On August 25, he underwent an [[angioplasty]] procedure at the Mayo Clinic. On August 28, Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home. On October 13, he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake, the [[Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy]] at the University of Michigan, but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend. The previous day, Ford had entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests; he was released on October 16.<ref>{{cite web|title=Former President Gerald Ford Released from Hospital |work=Fox News |date=October 16, 2006 |access-date=September 3, 2009 |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,221379,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429035745/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C221379%2C00.html |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By November 2006, he was confined to a bed in his study.<ref>[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0612/27/bn.01.html "Gerald Ford Dies At Age 93"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515201445/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0612/27/bn.01.html |date=May 15, 2008 }}. CNN Transcript December 26, 2006. Retrieved March 2, 2008.</ref> | ||
==Death and legacy== | ==Death and legacy== | ||
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[[File:Lying in State - President Gerald Ford (8288035735).jpg|thumb|Ford [[lying in state]] in the Capitol rotunda]] | [[File:Lying in State - President Gerald Ford (8288035735).jpg|thumb|Ford [[lying in state]] in the Capitol rotunda]] | ||
Ford died on December 26, 2006, at his home in [[Rancho Mirage, California]], of arteriosclerotic [[cerebrovascular disease]] and diffuse [[arteriosclerosis]]. He had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe [[aortic stenosis]] and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves.<ref>DeFrank T: Write It When I'm Gone, G. Putnam & Sons, New York, NY, 2007.</ref> At the time of his death, Ford was the [[List of presidents of the United States by age|longest-lived U.S. president]], having lived 93 years and 165 days (45 days longer than Ronald Reagan, whose record he surpassed).<ref name="deathofford">{{cite news| last1=Naughton| first1=James M.| last2=Clymer| first2=Adam| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/27/washington/27webford.html| title=Gerald Ford, 38th President, Dies at 93| date=December 27, 2006| newspaper=The New York Times| access-date=October 19, 2009| archive-date=August 20, 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820152316/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/27/washington/27webford.html| url-status=live}}</ref> He died on the 34th anniversary of President | Ford died on December 26, 2006, at his home in [[Rancho Mirage, California]], of arteriosclerotic [[cerebrovascular disease]] and diffuse [[arteriosclerosis]]. He had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe [[aortic stenosis]] and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves.<ref>DeFrank T: Write It When I'm Gone, G. Putnam & Sons, New York, NY, 2007.</ref> At the time of his death, Ford was the [[List of presidents of the United States by age|longest-lived U.S. president]], having lived 93 years and 165 days (45 days longer than Ronald Reagan, whose record he surpassed).<ref name="deathofford">{{cite news| last1=Naughton| first1=James M.| last2=Clymer| first2=Adam| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/27/washington/27webford.html| title=Gerald Ford, 38th President, Dies at 93| date=December 27, 2006| newspaper=The New York Times| access-date=October 19, 2009| archive-date=August 20, 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820152316/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/27/washington/27webford.html| url-status=live}}</ref> He died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry S. Truman's death; he was the last surviving member of the [[Warren Commission]].<ref name="preseulog">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/02/world/americas/02iht-web.0207ford.4080367.html|title=Bush and ex-presidents eulogize Gerald R. Ford|date=January 2, 2007|work=The New York Times|author=Stout, David|access-date=September 3, 2009|archive-date=May 11, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511105455/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/02/world/americas/02iht-web.0207ford.4080367.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
On December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. president to [[Lying in state#United States|lie in state]] in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor |title=Lying in State or in Honor |publisher=US Architect of the Capitol (AOC) |access-date=September 1, 2018 |archive-date=May 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518015734/https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor |url-status=live }}</ref> A state funeral and memorial services were held at the [[National Cathedral]] in Washington, D.C., on Tuesday, January 2, 2007. After the service, Ford was interred at his [[Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum|Presidential Museum]] in Grand Rapids, Michigan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ford Is Buried After Thousands in Hometown Pay Respects|work=The New York Times|date=January 4, 2007|access-date=October 16, 2009|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/washington/04ford.html|first=Monica|last=Davey|archive-date=June 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605035320/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/washington/04ford.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | On December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. president to [[Lying in state#United States|lie in state]] in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor |title=Lying in State or in Honor |publisher=US Architect of the Capitol (AOC) |access-date=September 1, 2018 |archive-date=May 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518015734/https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor |url-status=live }}</ref> A state funeral and memorial services were held at the [[National Cathedral]] in Washington, D.C., on Tuesday, January 2, 2007. After the service, Ford was interred at his [[Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum|Presidential Museum]] in Grand Rapids, Michigan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ford Is Buried After Thousands in Hometown Pay Respects|work=The New York Times|date=January 4, 2007|access-date=October 16, 2009|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/washington/04ford.html|first=Monica|last=Davey|archive-date=June 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605035320/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/04/washington/04ford.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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One of the songs selected by Ford during the procession was the University of Michigan fight song, as it was a favorite of his that he preferred to be played during his presidency.<ref>{{Cite news|url= | One of the songs selected by Ford during the procession was the University of Michigan fight song, as it was a favorite of his that he preferred to be played during his presidency.<ref>{{Cite news|url= | ||
https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29funeral.html|title=Ford Arranged His Funeral to Reflect Himself and Drew in a Former Adversary|last=Kornblut|first=Anne E.|date=December 29, 2006|work= | https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/washington/29funeral.html|title=Ford Arranged His Funeral to Reflect Himself and Drew in a Former Adversary|last=Kornblut|first=Anne E.|date=December 29, 2006|work=The New York Times|location=New York|access-date=July 20, 2024}}</ref> After his death in December 2006, the [[University of Michigan Marching Band]] played the school's fight song for him one final time, for his last ride from the [[Gerald R. Ford Airport]] in Grand Rapids, Michigan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=eIEVAAAAIBAJ&pg=5206,309767|title=Funeral: Marching Band Plays in His Honor|date=January 3, 2007|work=Eugene Register-Guard|access-date=September 2, 2009}}{{Dead link|date=June 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | ||
The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a [[Statue of Gerald Ford|statue of Ford]] to the [[National Statuary Hall Collection]], replacing [[Zachariah Chandler]]. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011, in the Capitol Rotunda. | The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a [[Statue of Gerald Ford|statue of Ford]] to the [[National Statuary Hall Collection]], replacing [[Zachariah Chandler]]. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011, in the Capitol Rotunda. | ||
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On October 15, 1948, Ford married [[Elizabeth Bloomer]] (1918–2011) at Grace [[Episcopal Church in an United States of America|Episcopal church]] in Grand Rapids; it was his first and only marriage, and her second one. (Her previous marriage, to William Warren, lasted 5 years and ended in divorce.)<ref name=NYT1974Howard>{{cite news|first=Jane|last=Howard|author-link=Jane Howard (journalist)|title=The 38th First Lady: Not a Robot At All|work=The New York Times|date=December 8, 1974|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/08/archives/forward-day-by-day-the-38th-first-lady-not-a-robot-at-all-betty.html|via=The TimesMachine archive viewer|access-date=June 30, 2018|archive-date=June 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607005442/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/08/archives/forward-day-by-day-the-38th-first-lady-not-a-robot-at-all-betty.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | On October 15, 1948, Ford married [[Elizabeth Bloomer]] (1918–2011) at Grace [[Episcopal Church in an United States of America|Episcopal church]] in Grand Rapids; it was his first and only marriage, and her second one. (Her previous marriage, to William Warren, lasted 5 years and ended in divorce.)<ref name=NYT1974Howard>{{cite news|first=Jane|last=Howard|author-link=Jane Howard (journalist)|title=The 38th First Lady: Not a Robot At All|work=The New York Times|date=December 8, 1974|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/08/archives/forward-day-by-day-the-38th-first-lady-not-a-robot-at-all-betty.html|via=The TimesMachine archive viewer|access-date=June 30, 2018|archive-date=June 7, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607005442/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/12/08/archives/forward-day-by-day-the-38th-first-lady-not-a-robot-at-all-betty.html|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
Bloomer, who was originally from Grand Rapids herself, had been living in New York City for several years, where she had been working as a [[John Robert Powers]] fashion model, and as a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the [[Martha Graham]] Dance Company. At the time of their engagement, Ford was campaigning for what would be the first of his 13 terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives. They delayed their wedding until shortly before the [[1948 United States House of Representatives elections|election]] because, as '' | Bloomer, who was originally from Grand Rapids herself, had been living in New York City for several years, where she had been working as a [[John Robert Powers]] fashion model, and as a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the [[Martha Graham]] Dance Company. At the time of their engagement, Ford was campaigning for what would be the first of his 13 terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives. They delayed their wedding until shortly before the [[1948 United States House of Representatives elections|election]] because, as ''The New York Times'' reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford, "Jerry Ford was running for Congress and wasn't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced exdancer."<ref name=NYT1974Howard/> | ||
The couple had four children: Michael Gerald, born in 1950; John Gardner (known as Jack), born in 1952; [[Steven Ford|Steven Meigs]], born in 1956; and [[Susan Ford Bales|Susan Elizabeth]], born in 1957.<ref name="GF:FL">{{cite web| last=Greene| first=John Robert| title=Gerald Ford: Family Life| url=https://millercenter.org/president/ford/family-life| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 25, 2018| date=October 4, 2016| archive-date=March 26, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326064021/https://millercenter.org/president/ford/family-life| url-status=live}}</ref> | The couple had four children: Michael Gerald, born in 1950; John Gardner (known as Jack), born in 1952; [[Steven Ford|Steven Meigs]], born in 1956; and [[Susan Ford Bales|Susan Elizabeth]], born in 1957.<ref name="GF:FL">{{cite web| last=Greene| first=John Robert| title=Gerald Ford: Family Life| url=https://millercenter.org/president/ford/family-life| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 25, 2018| date=October 4, 2016| archive-date=March 26, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326064021/https://millercenter.org/president/ford/family-life| url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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==Public image== | ==Public image== | ||
[[File:President George W. Bush, Former President Gerald Ford, and Betty Ford.jpg|thumb|alt=President Bush in a suit standing next to the Fords in casual attire in front of their yellow house.|President | [[File:President George W. Bush, Former President Gerald Ford, and Betty Ford.jpg|thumb|alt=President Bush in a suit standing next to the Fords in casual attire in front of their yellow house.|President George W. Bush with Ford and his wife Betty on April 23, 2006]] | ||
Ford is the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice president. The choice of Ford to fill the vacant vice-presidency was based on Ford's reputation for openness and honesty.<ref name=sacrifice>{{cite web|url=http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/30916-Gerald-Ford-Bettys-husband/|title=Gerald Ford, Betty's Husband|access-date=December 4, 2009|publisher=The Phoenix Media/Communications Group|archive-date=May 1, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501082051/http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/30916-Gerald-Ford-Bettys-husband/|url-status=live}}</ref> "In all the years I sat in the House, I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part-true and part-false. He never attempted to shade a statement, and I never heard him utter an unkind word", said [[Martha Griffiths]].<ref name=publicimage /> | Ford is the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice president. The choice of Ford to fill the vacant vice-presidency was based on Ford's reputation for openness and honesty.<ref name=sacrifice>{{cite web|url=http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/30916-Gerald-Ford-Bettys-husband/|title=Gerald Ford, Betty's Husband|access-date=December 4, 2009|publisher=The Phoenix Media/Communications Group|archive-date=May 1, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501082051/http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/30916-Gerald-Ford-Bettys-husband/|url-status=live}}</ref> "In all the years I sat in the House, I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part-true and part-false. He never attempted to shade a statement, and I never heard him utter an unkind word", said [[Martha Griffiths]].<ref name=publicimage /> | ||
According to the [[Gallup Organization]], Ford took office with the fourth-highest [[approval rating]] for a president following their inauguration, but the trust the American public had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by the pardon of Nixon and his ratings fell an unprecedented 21 points.<ref name="ug554">Daniel, Clifton (October 13, 1974). [https://www.nytimes.com/1974/10/13/archives/fords-gallup-rating-off-21-points-after-pardon-unexpected-wounds.html Ford's Gallup Rating Off 21 Points After Pardon]. | According to the [[Gallup Organization]], Ford took office with the fourth-highest [[approval rating]] for a president following their inauguration, but the trust the American public had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by the pardon of Nixon and his ratings fell an unprecedented 21 points.<ref name="ug554">Daniel, Clifton (October 13, 1974). [https://www.nytimes.com/1974/10/13/archives/fords-gallup-rating-off-21-points-after-pardon-unexpected-wounds.html Ford's Gallup Rating Off 21 Points After Pardon]. The New York Times. Retrieved October 31, 2024.</ref><ref name=publicimage>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/presidents/gerald-r-ford-1451818.html|title=Gerald R Ford|access-date=December 2, 2009|work=The Independent|location=London|date=January 21, 2009|archive-date=July 17, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717041158/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/presidents/gerald-r-ford-1451818.html|url-status=live}}</ref> By January 1975, his disapproval rating had surpassed his approval rating.<ref name="53bbhp">Gallup, George (February 21, 1975). [https://www.newspapers.com/article/st-louis-post-dispatch-criticism-of-for/158197117/ Criticism of Ford Policies]. [[Gallup Organization]]. ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch''. Retrieved October 31, 2024.</ref> | ||
In recent years, many grant in hindsight that Ford had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought regarding the Nixon pardon.<ref name=publicimage /> | In recent years, many grant in hindsight that Ford had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought regarding the Nixon pardon.<ref name=publicimage /> | ||
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* [http://www.ontheissues.org/Gerald_Ford.htm Issue positions and quotes] at [[On the Issues]] | * [http://www.ontheissues.org/Gerald_Ford.htm Issue positions and quotes] at [[On the Issues]] | ||
* [http://www.c-spanvideo.org/geraldford Appearances] on [[C-SPAN]] programs | * [http://www.c-spanvideo.org/geraldford Appearances] on [[C-SPAN]] programs | ||
* [http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/f/gerald_rudolph_jr_ford/index.html Collected news and commentary] at '' | * [http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/f/gerald_rudolph_jr_ford/index.html Collected news and commentary] at ''The New York Times'' | ||
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