Federal Emergency Management Agency

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Federal Emergency Management Agency
Type: Executive Departments
Parent organization: U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Employees: 13000
Executive: Administrator
Budget: $25.3 billion (Fiscal Year 2023)
Address: 500 C Street SW, Washington, DC 20472
Website: https://www.fema.gov
Creation Legislation: Executive Order 12127 by President Jimmy Carter (1979)
Wikipedia: Federal Emergency Management AgencyWikipedia Logo.png
Federal Emergency Management Agency
This map created from a Cargo query (Purge)
Mission
To support citizens and first responders to ensure that, as a nation, we work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards. FEMA aims to lead America to prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from disasters with a focus on resilience.
Services

Disaster response; Emergency management; Hazard mitigation; Preparedness programs; Public assistance

Regulations


Federal Emergency Management Agency
File:FEMA logo.svg
File:Flag of the Federal Emergency Management Agency.svg
Agency Overview
Formed April 1, 1979; 45 years ago (1979-04-01)[1]
Jurisdiction United States Department of Homeland Security
Headquarters Washington, D.C., U.S.
Employees 22,991 (Sep 2023)[2]
Annual budget $29.5 billion (FY 2023)[3]
Agency Executive Deanne Criswell, Administrator
Parent department U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Website
[{{{url}}} Official Site - {{{text}}}]

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), initially created under President Jimmy Carter by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1, 1979.[1] The agency's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities. The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the President that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster. The only exception to the state's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset—for example, the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster.

While on-the-ground support of disaster recovery efforts is a major part of FEMA's charter, the agency provides state and local governments with experts in specialized fields, funding for rebuilding efforts, and relief funds for infrastructure development by directing individuals to access low-interest loans, in conjunction with the Small Business Administration. In addition to this, FEMA provides funds for response personnel training throughout the United States as part of the agency's preparedness effort.

History

Federal emergency management in the U.S. has existed in one form or another for over 200 years.[4]

Prior to 1930s

A series of devastating fires struck the port city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, early in the 19th century. The 7th U.S. Congress passed a measure in 1803 that provided relief for Portsmouth merchants by extending the time they had for remitting tariffs on imported goods. This is widely considered the first piece of legislation passed by the federal government that provided relief after a disaster.[5]

Between 1803 and 1930, ad hoc legislation was passed more than 100 times for relief or compensation after a disaster. Examples include the waiving of duties and tariffs to the merchants of New York City after the Great Fire of New York (1835). After the collapse of the John T. Ford's Theater in June 1893, the 54th Congress passed legislation compensating those who were injured in the building.[6]

Piecemeal approach (1930s–1960s)

After the start of the Great Depression in 1929, President Herbert Hoover had commissioned the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932.[7] The purpose of the RFC was to lend money to banks and institutions to stimulate economic activity. RFC was also responsible for dispensing federal dollars in the wake of a disaster. RFC can be considered the first organized federal disaster response agency.

The Bureau of Public Roads in 1934 was given authority to finance the reconstruction of highways and roads after a disaster. The Flood Control Act of 1944 also gave the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authority over flood control and irrigation projects and thus played a major role in disaster recovery from flooding.[8]

Department of Housing and Urban Development (1973–1979)

Federal disaster relief and recovery was brought under the umbrella of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), in 1973 by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973,[9] and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration was created as an organizational unit within the department. This agency would oversee disasters until its incorporation into FEMA in 1978.[9]

Prior to implementation of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 by E.O. 12127 and E.O. 12148, many government agencies were still involved in disaster relief; in some cases, more than 100 separate agencies might be jockeying for control and jurisdiction of a disaster.[10]

Over the years, Congress increasingly extended the range of covered categories for assistance, and several presidential executive orders did the same. By enacting these various forms of legislative direction, Congress established a category for annual budgetary amounts of assistance to victims of various types of hazards or disasters, it specified the qualifications, and then it established or delegated the responsibilities to various federal and non-federal agencies.[11]

In time, this expanded array of agencies themselves underwent reorganization. One of the first such federal agencies was the Federal Civil Defense Administration, which operated within the Executive Office of the President. Functions to administer disaster relief were then given to the President himself, who delegated to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. Subsequently, a new office of the Office of Defense Mobilization was created. Then, the new Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization, managed by the EOP; after that, the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, which renamed the former agency; then, the Office of Civil Defense, under the Department of Defense (DoD); the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW); the Department of Agriculture; the Office of Emergency Planning (OEmP); the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (replacing the OCD in the DoD); the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the General Services Administration (GSA) (upon termination of the OEmP).[11]

These actions demonstrated that, during those years, the nation's domestic preparedness was addressed by several disparate legislative actions, motivated by policy and budgetary earmarking, and not by a single, unifying, comprehensive strategy to meet the nation's needs over time.[12] Then, in 1978 an effort was made to consolidate the several singular functions; FEMA was created to house civil defense and disaster preparedness under one roof. This was a very controversial decision.[11]

FEMA as an independent agency (1979–2003)

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File:US-FEMA-Pre2003Seal.svg
The FEMA seal from 1981 to 2003
File:Flag of the Federal Emergency Management Agency.svg
The FEMA flag from 1981 to 2003 and 2022-present

FEMA was established under the 1978 Reorganization Plan No. 3 and was activated by President Jimmy Carter in an Executive Order on April 1, 1979.

In July, Carter signed Executive Order 12148 shifting disaster relief efforts to the new federal-level agency. FEMA absorbed the Federal Insurance Administration, the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, the National Weather Service Community Preparedness Program, the Federal Preparedness Agency of the General Services Administration and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration activities from HUD. FEMA was also given the responsibility for overseeing the nation's Civil Defense, a function which had previously been performed by the Department of Defense's Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.

One of the disasters FEMA responded to was the dumping of toxic waste into Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York, in the late 1970s. FEMA also responded to the Three Mile Island nuclear accident where the nuclear-generating station suffered a partial core meltdown. These disasters, while showing the agency could function properly, also uncovered some inefficiencies.[citation needed]

In 1993, President Bill Clinton appointed James Lee Witt as FEMA Director. In 1996, the agency was elevated to cabinet rank;[13] this was not continued by President George W. Bush.[14] Witt initiated reforms that would help to streamline the disaster recovery and mitigation process. The end of the Cold War also allowed the agency's resources to be turned away from civil defense to natural disaster preparedness.[10]

After FEMA's creation through reorganization and executive orders, Congress continued to expand FEMA's authority by assigning responsibilities to it. Those responsibilities include dam safety under the National Dam Safety Program Act; disaster assistance under the Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act; earthquake hazards reduction under the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and further expanded by Executive Order 12699, regarding safety requirements for federal buildings and Executive Order 12941, concerning the need for cost estimates to seismically retrofit federal buildings; emergency food and shelter under the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987; hazardous materials, under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act.

In addition, FEMA received authority for counterterrorism through the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici amendment under the Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996, which was a response to the recognized vulnerabilities of the U.S. after the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995.[12]

Congress funded FEMA through a combination of regular appropriations and emergency funding in response to events.[15]

FEMA under Department of Homeland Security (2003–present)

File:Appropriations Act of 2004.jpg
President George W. Bush signs the Homeland Security Appropriations Act of 2004.

Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, Congress passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which created the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to better coordinate among the different federal agencies that deal with law enforcement, disaster preparedness and recovery, border protection and civil defense. FEMA was absorbed into DHS effective March 1, 2003.[16] As a result, FEMA became part of the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate of Department of Homeland Security, employing more than 2,600 full-time employees. It became Federal Emergency Management Agency again on March 31, 2007, but remained in DHS.[17]

President Bush appointed Michael D. Brown as FEMA's director in January 2003. Brown warned in September 2003 that FEMA's absorption into DHS would make a mockery of FEMA's new motto, "A Nation Prepared", and would "fundamentally sever FEMA from its core functions", "shatter agency morale" and "break longstanding, effective and tested relationships with states and first responder stakeholders". The inevitable result of the reorganization of 2003, warned Brown, would be "an ineffective and uncoordinated response" to a terrorist attack or a natural disaster.[18]

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 demonstrated that the vision of further unification of functions and another reorganization could not address the problems FEMA had previously faced. The "Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina", released February 15, 2006, by the U.S. Government Printing Office, revealed that federal funding to states for "all hazards" disaster preparedness needs was not awarded unless the local agencies made the purposes for the funding a "just terrorism" function.[19] Emergency management professionals testified that funds for preparedness for natural hazards were given less priority than preparations for counter-terrorism measures. Testimony also expressed the opinion that the mission to mitigate vulnerability and prepare for natural hazard disasters before they occurred had been separated from disaster preparedness functions, making the nation more vulnerable to known hazards, like hurricanes.[20]

After allegations of mismanagement during Hurricane Katrina, the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) was transferred from the Department of Homeland Security to the Department of Health and Human Services by the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act, signed by President George W. Bush on December 18, 2006.

In fall 2008, FEMA took over coordination of the Ready Campaign, the national public service advertising campaign in collaboration with the Ad Council, to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man-made disasters. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish-language version Listo asks individuals to do three things: build an emergency supply kit,[21] make a family emergency plan[22] and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond.[23] The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs,[24] as well as brochures, toll-free phone lines and the English and Spanish language websites.

The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 added a Surge Capacity Force, which allows the Department of Homeland Security to supplement FEMA employees with additional personnel from various federal departments in the event the agency is overwhelmed. The Force has been activated for Hurricane Sandy, Hurricane Harvey, Hurricane Irma, Hurricane Maria, and the 2017 California wildfires.[25]

The Stafford Act was amended by the Pets Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act (PETS Act) in 2006, and the Disaster Recovery Reform Act (DRRA) in 2018.

FEMA was put in charge of procuring medical supplies during the COVID-19 pandemic.[26]

According to a tweet posted on April 12, 2022, by Deanne Criswell, the FEMA flag, used between 1981 and 2003, was reintroduced.

Organization

During the debate of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, some called for FEMA to remain as an independent agency. Following the failed response to Hurricane Katrina, critics called for FEMA to be removed from the Department of Homeland Security.[27] Today FEMA exists as a major agency of the Department of Homeland Security. The Administrator for Federal Emergency Management reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security. In March 2003, FEMA joined 22 other federal agencies, programs and offices in becoming the Department of Homeland Security. The new department, headed by Secretary Tom Ridge, brought a coordinated approach to national security from emergencies and disasters – both natural and man-made.

FEMA manages the National Flood Insurance Program. Other programs FEMA previously administered have since been internalized or shifted under direct DHS control.

FEMA is also home to the National Continuity Programs Directorate (formerly the Office of National Security Coordination). ONSC was responsible for developing, exercising, and validating agency-wide continuity of government plans as well as overseeing and maintaining continuity readiness including the Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center. ONSC also coordinated the continuing efforts of other Federal Executive Agencies.

FEMA began administering the Center for Domestic Preparedness in 2007.

FEMA administers the Homeland Security Grant Program (HSGP) which provides funding to state governments, local governments, Tribal governemnts, and Territorial governments along with specified Urban Areas and counties along international borders to invest in security enhancements. HSGP is broken out into three primary grant programs: State Homeland Security Grant Program (SHSP), Urban Area Security Initiative (UASI), and Operation Stonegarden (OPSG). As of 2024, the Tribal Homeland Security Grant Program (THSGP) is funded as a percentage carveout of HSGP as well. The Nonprofit Security Grant Program (NSGP) used to be funded under the HSGP as well, but Congress now funds that program separate from HSGP. NSGP provides funding for nonprofit organizations more at risk to terrorist actions and domestic violence extremeism to invest in target hardening. This includes, but is not limited to, organizations such as educational facilities, hospitals, and house of worship. In 2024, FEMA administered over $3 billion across the suite of homeland security grants. [28] [29][30][31] [32]

Budget

In 2018, FEMA had an annual budget of $18 billion[33] that is used and distributed in different states according to the emergencies that occur in each one. An annual list of the use of these funds is disclosed at the end of the year on FEMA's website.[34][35][36][37]

Regions

FEMA Regions map grouped by states and number
Region 1, Boston, MA – Serving CT, MA, ME, NH, RI, VT
Region 2, New York, NY Serving NJ, NY, PR, USVI
Region 3, Philadelphia, PA Serving DC, DE, MD, PA, VA, WV
Region 4, Atlanta, GA Serving AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN
Region 5, Chicago, IL Serving IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI
Region 6, Denton, TX Serving AR, LA, NM, OK, TX
Region 7, Kansas City, MO Serving IA, KS, MO, NE
Region 8, Denver, CO Serving CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY
Region 9, Oakland, CA Serving AZ, CA, HI, NV, GU, AS, CNMI, RMI, FM
Region 10, Bothell, WA Serving AK, ID, OR, WA

Cadres

FEMA maintains 23 cadres of various work functions and skillsets to prepare, respond, and recover from various disasters.[39]

  • Acquisitions (ACQ)
  • Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
  • Civil Rights (CVR)
  • Disability Integration (DI)
  • Disaster Emergency Communications (DEC)
  • Disaster Field Training Operations (DFTO)
  • Disaster Survivor Assistance (DSA)
  • Enviromental/Historic Preservation (EHP)
  • External Affairs (EA)
  • Field Leadership (FL)
  • Financial Management (FM)
  • Hazard Mitigation (HM)
  • Human Resources (HR)
  • Individual Assistance (IA)
  • Information Technology (IT)
  • Interagency Recovery Coordination (IRC)
  • Logistics (LOG)
  • Office of Chief Counsel, Legal Affairs (OCC)
  • Operations (OPS)
  • Planning (PLAN)
  • Public Assistance (PA)
  • Safety (SAF)
  • Security (SEC)

Pre-disaster mitigation programs

FEMA's Mitigation Directorate[40] is responsible for programs that take action before a disaster, in order to identify risks and reduce injuries, loss of property, and recovery time.[41] The agency has major analysis programs for floods, hurricanes and tropical storms, dams, and earthquakes.[41][42]

FEMA works to ensure affordable flood insurance is available to homeowners in flood plains, through the National Flood Insurance Program, and also works to enforce no-build zones in known flood plains and relocate or elevate some at-risk structures.[43]

Pre-Disaster Mitigation grants are available to acquire property for conversion to open space, retrofit existing buildings, construct tornado and storm shelters, manage vegetation for erosion and fire control, and small flood control projects.[44] Critics say this program is underperforming because it is starved for funding compared to disaster response and recovery, the process of applying for a buyout is unreasonably slow, and is wasting taxpayer dollars because the National Flood Insurance Program has paid to reconstruct some properties up to 18 times.[45] 1% of NFIP-insured properties are responsible for more than one quarter of the money the program has paid out.[46]

The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program funds rebuilding after a current disaster in a way that reduces the impact of a similar future disaster.[47]

Response capabilities

FEMA's emergency response is based on small, decentralized teams trained in such areas as the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), Urban Search and Rescue (USAR), Disaster Mortuary Operations Response Team (DMORT), Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT), and Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS).

National Response Coordination Center (NRCC)

FEMA's National Response Coordination Center (NRCC) is a multiagency center located at FEMA HQ that coordinates the overall Federal support for major disasters and emergencies, including catastrophic incidents in support of operations at the regional level. The FEMA Administrator,[48] or his or her delegate, activates the NRCC in anticipation of, or in response to, an incident by activating the NRCC staff, which includes FEMA personnel, the appropriate Emergency Support Functions, and other appropriate personnel (including nongovernmental organization and private sector representatives). During the initial stages of a response, FEMA will, as part of the whole community, focus on projected, potential, or escalating critical incident activities. The NRCC coordinates with the affected region(s) and provides needed resources and policy guidance in support of incident-level operations. The NRCC staff specifically provides emergency management coordination, planning, resource deployment, and collects and disseminates incident information as it builds and maintains situational awareness—all at the national-level.[49] FEMA maintains the NRCC as a functional component of the NOC for incident support operations.[50][51]

An example of NRCC activity is the coordination of emergency management activities that took place in connection with the 2013 Colorado floods.[52]

Disaster Medical Assistance Teams

File:FEMA - 38464 - DMAT team IOWA-1 assisting a resident in Texas.jpg
DMAT team deployed for Hurricane Ike in Texas

Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT) provide medical care at disasters and are typically made up of doctors and paramedics. There are also National Nursing Response Teams (NNRT), National Pharmacy Response Teams (NPRT) and Veterinary Medical Assistance Teams (VMAT). Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORT) provide mortuary and forensic services. National Medical Response Teams (NMRT) are equipped to decontaminate victims of chemical and biological agents.

Urban Search and Rescue (US&R)

The Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces perform rescue of victims from structural collapses, confined spaces, and other disasters, for example, mine collapses and earthquakes.

Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS)

File:U.S. presidential mobile phone alert (animated).gif
Presidential mobile phone alert for national emergencies
File:Hurricane Ike Sabine Pass TX FEMA motorhome.jpg
FEMA vehicle provides communications support after a major hurricane.

These teams provide communications support to local public safety. For instance, they may operate a truck with satellite uplink, computers, telephone, and power generation at a staging area near a disaster so that the responders can communicate with the outside world. There are also Mobile Air Transportable Telecommunications System (MATTS) assets which can be airlifted in. Also, portable cell phone towers can be erected to allow local responders to access telephone systems.

The first test of the national wireless emergency system by FEMA was broadcast to an estimated 225 million electronic devices at 14:18 EDT on October 3, 2018. The text message was accompanied by a flashing warning sign and warning tone. The president may direct FEMA to broadcast such alerts only for national emergencies or if the public is in danger. The facility may not be used for personal messages from the president. Mobile phone owners can not opt out of these warnings.[53][54]

Preparedness for nuclear incidents

On August 1, 2008, FEMA released "Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) incidents",[55] which provide an action guide in the case of radioactive contamination. This guidance is specified as action guide for Radiological Dispersal Devices (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Devices (IND) involving high levels of radiation. According to the Federation of American Scientists, during the Cold War FEMA prepared assessments of the likely consequences of a full-scale Soviet nuclear attack on the United States for use in planning mitigation and recovery efforts.[56] FEMA also prepared plans for evacuating major U.S. cities in response to a nuclear war, dubbed CRP-2B.[57]

Training

FEMA offers a large number of training classes, either at its own centers, through programs at the state level, in cooperation with colleges and universities, or online. The latter are free classes available to anyone, although only those with U.S. residency or work eligibility can take the final examinations. More information is available on the FEMA website under the "Emergency Personnel" and "Training" subheadings. Other emergency response information for citizens is also available at its website.

FEMA runs the Incident Workforce Academy, a two-week emergency preparedness training program for FEMA employees. The first class of the academy graduated in early 2014.[58]

The Training and Education Division within FEMA's National Integration Center directly funds training for responders and provides guidance on training-related expenditures under FEMA's grant programs. Information on designing effective training for first responders is available from the Training and Education Division. Emergency managers and other interested members of the public can take independent study courses for certification at FEMA's online Emergency Management Institute.

Emergency Management Institute training and certifications

See also: Emergency Management Institute

EMI offers credentials and training opportunities for United States Citizens. Note that students do not have to be employed by FEMA or be a federal employee for some of the programs. However, they do need to create a FEMA SID to take the final exams[59]

EMI maintains a strategic partnership with Frederick Community College. FCC has contracted with the Emergency Management Institute to provide college credit for the Independent Study Program (ISP). FCC offers eight specialized Letters of Recognition, an Undergraduate Certificate, and an Associate of Applied Science degree in Emergency Management.[60]

FEMA Corps

FEMA Corps, who range in age from 18 to 26 years old, is a cadre dedicated to disaster response and recovery. It is a new partnership between The Corporation for National and Community Service's AmeriCorps NCCC (National Civilian Community Corps) and FEMA.[61] The Corps, described as a "dedicated, trained, and reliable disaster workforce", works full-time for 10 months on federal disaster response, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness efforts across numerous sections. Over 150 members of the inaugural FEMA Corps class graduated in June 2013, at the Southern Region AmeriCorps NCCC campus in Vicksburg, Mississippi. The Pacific Region campus in Sacramento, California and the Southern Region campus both support a FEMA Corps class annually.[62] The Corps work on teams of 6 to 10 people and follow the traditional NCCC model of living together and traveling together. In addition to working with FEMA, Corps members must perform AmeriCorps responsibilities such as Physical Training three times a week, National Days of Service, and Individual Service Projects in communities throughout the United States. Members receive $6.10 a day for food ($15 a day when deployed to on disaster project) and a living stipend of approximately $3,500 over 10 months (Approximately $175 every two weeks). Team leaders receive a larger stipend of approximately $10,000 over the course of 10 months (Approximately $500 every two weeks). The Segal AmeriCorps education award is distributed to Corps members who successfully finish their term of service, completing 1,700 or more total hours. The amount of a full-time Segal AmeriCorps Education Award is equivalent to the maximum value of the Pell Grant for the fiscal year in which the term of national service is approved, and can therefore change between different classes.[63][64]

File:Blue Unit.jpg
FEMA Corps Pacific Region Blue Unit

Donations management

FEMA has led a Public-Private Partnership in creating a National Donations Management Program making it easier for corporations or individuals not previously engaged to make offers of free assistance to States and the Federal Government in times of disaster. The program is a partnership among FEMA, relief agencies, corporations/corporate associations and participating state governments.[citation needed]

Federalism and FEMA

The costs of a disaster to states and localities can escalate quickly. Federal assistance becomes fully available with the approval of the President and at the request of the governor. Public help for governments to repair facilities is 75% federally funded with local governments responsible for covering the rest (unless the state grants aid or loans). FEMA does not compensate for buildings that have been improperly maintained by the state or local government nor does it pay to upgrade or improve facilities. FEMA coordinates but does not fund disaster assistance provided by the Small Business Administration or the Farmers Home Administration. FEMA grant-in aid funds come from revenue sharing, the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Department of Transportation. Grants for disaster preparedness can be used by flood control districts.[65]

Many states have disaster relief agencies of their own. In the event of a disaster outside of a state's operating capacity, the director of said agency will advise the Governor whether or not to proclaim a state of emergency. Declaring a state of emergency, upon Presidential approval, entitles a state to federal assistance.

Proclaiming a state of emergency does not guarantee federal assistance. States also rely on mutual aid agreements, such as the Civil Defense and Disaster Compact and Emergency Management Assistance Compact. A mutual aid agreement can be between neighboring states, cities, counties and cities, states and cities or an entire region. These agreements allow agencies to share resources so they are better prepared for emergencies.[66]

Local governments have the most immediate responsibility. Four factors shape local disaster response:

  1. The extent of tax base depletion
  2. The scope of lost sales tax revenue
  3. Access to other forms of revenue
  4. Amount of city debt

Having a mostly intact tax base allows local governments to maintain steady revenue stream. Business unharmed by a disaster will be able to continue to generate sales tax revenue. Cities with access to large revenue reserves and strong mutual aid agreements will have greater response capacity. While cities with large municipal debt that would be unable to pay back state or federal loans would be in a difficult situation.[67]

U.S. v. Parish of Jefferson et al

This case gave FEMA the right to sue in order to recover funds paid out in flood insurance claims for flood damage as a result of poor decisions by local officials and developers. The case also gave FEMA the power to sue localities who fail to meet flood plain management requirements.[67]

List of FEMA heads

Portrait Name Start End President
File:No image.svg James Hafer May 1975 April 1, 1979 Gerald Ford
File:No image.svg Gordon Vickery
Acting 		April 1, 1979 July 1979 Jimmy Carter
File:No image.svg Thomas Casey
Acting 		July 1979 August 1979
File:JohnWMacyJr1963.png John Macy August 1979 January 20, 1981
File:No image.svg Bernard Gallagher
Acting 		January 20, 1981 April 1981 Ronald Reagan
File:No image.svg John McConnell
Acting 		April 1981 May 1981
File:No image.svg Jeff Giuffrida May 1981 September 1, 1985
File:No image.svg Robert Morris
Acting 		September 1, 1985 November 1985
File:No image.svg Julius Becton November 1985 June 1989
File:No image.svg Robert Morris
Acting 		June 1989 May 1990 George H. W. Bush
File:No image.svg Jerry Jennings
Acting 		May 1990 August 1990
File:No image.svg Wallace Stickney August 1990 January 20, 1993
File:No image.svg William Tidball
Acting 		January 20, 1993 April 5, 1993 Bill Clinton
File:James Lee Witt, official FEMA photo portrait.jpg James Witt April 5, 1993 January 20, 2001
File:John magaw.jpg John Magaw
Acting 		January 20, 2001 February 15, 2001 George W. Bush
File:FEMA - 5710 - Photograph by Greg Schaler taken on 12-10-2001 in District of Columbia.jpg Joe Allbaugh February 15, 2001 April 15, 2003
File:Michael D. Brown, official FEMA photo portrait, 2003.jpg Michael Brown April 15, 2003 September 12, 2005
File:R. David Paulison, official FEMA photo portrait, 2006.jpg David Paulison September 12, 2005
Acting: September 12, 2005 – June 8, 2006 		January 21, 2009
File:Nancy t ward.jpg Nancy Ward
Acting 		January 21, 2009 May 19, 2009 Barack Obama
File:Craig Fugate official portrait.jpg Craig Fugate May 19, 2009 January 20, 2017
File:FEMA - 45336 - FEMA's Robert Fenton in the FEMA studio (cropped).jpg Bob Fenton
Acting 		January 20, 2017 June 23, 2017 Donald Trump
File:Brock Long.jpg Brock Long June 23, 2017 March 8, 2019
File:Pete Gaynor DHS Portrait.jpg Pete Gaynor March 8, 2019
Acting: March 8, 2019 – January 14, 2020 		January 12, 2021
File:FEMA - 45336 - FEMA's Robert Fenton in the FEMA studio (cropped).jpg Bob Fenton
Acting 		January 12, 2021 April 26, 2021 Joe Biden
File:Deanne Criswell, FEMA Administrator.jpg Deanne Criswell April 26, 2021 present

Titles

Elevated to Cabinet-level (February 26, 1996 – January 20, 2001)[13][14]

  • Director of Federal Emergency Management Agency and Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Emergency Preparedness and Response within the Department of Homeland Security (April 15, 2003 – June 8, 2006)
  • Director of Federal Emergency Management Agency and Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Federal Emergency Management within the Department of Homeland Security (June 8, 2006 – March 31, 2007)
  • Administrator of Federal Emergency Management Agency within the Department of Homeland Security (March 31, 2007 – present)

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Executive Order 12127—Federal Emergency Management Agency". Federation of American Scientists. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/eo/eo-12127.htm. 
  2. ↑ "Procedures Relating to a Lapse in Appropriations" (in en). Department of Homeland Security. 22 September 2023. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-09/23_0926_dhs_procedures_related_to_lapse_in_appropriations_september_2023.pdf. 
  3. ↑ "DHS FEMA Budget Overview FY 2023 Congressional Justification". https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2022-03/Federal%20Emergency%20Management%20Agency_Remediated.pdf. 
  4. ↑ "The Federal Emergency Management Agency". November 2010. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1823-25045-8164/pub_1_final.pdf. 
  5. ↑ History of Federal Domestic Disaster Aid Before the Civil War Archived December 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Biot Report #379: July 24, 2006. Suburban Emergency Management Project.
  6. ↑ "Guide to House Records: Chapter 23 Ford's Theater Disaster". https://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/house/chapter-23-joint-fords-theater-disaster.html. 
  7. ↑ Article on the RFC from EH.NET's Encyclopedia. Archived October 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ US Fish and Wildlife Service. "Flood Control Act of 1944". https://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/FLOOD.HTML. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Records of the Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA"]. U.S. Government. August 15, 2016. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/311.html. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "FEMA History" Archived May 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Federal Emergency Management Agency.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Bea, Keith, "Proposed Transfer of FEMA to the Department of Homeland Security", Order Code RL31510 (updated July 29, 2002), Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service: Library of Congress.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Falkenrath, Richard S., "Problems of Preparedness: U.S. Readiness for a Domestic Terrorist Attack" (2001)International Security, Boston.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "President Clinton Raises FEMA Director to Cabinet Status" (Press release). Federal Emergency Management Agency. February 26, 1996. http://www.fema.gov/home/NWZ96/cabinet.htm. Retrieved March 3, 2010. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Fowler, Daniel (November 19, 2008). "Emergency Managers Make It Official: They Want FEMA Out of DHS". CQ Politics. http://www.cqpolitics.com/wmspage.cfm?docID=hsnews-000002988269&cpage=1. "During the Clinton administration, FEMA Administrator James Lee Witt met with the cabinet. His successor in the Bush administration, Joe M. Allbaugh, did not."  (Archived by WebCite at )
  15. ↑ Murry, Justin (updated July 10, 2006). "Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Legislation for Disaster Assistance: Summary Data FY1989 to FY2006", CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service: The Library of Congress.
  16. ↑ "Should FEMA Remain Part Of Homeland Security?" (in en). https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=100012612. 
  17. ↑ "Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006" (in en). https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/uploads/Post_Katrina_Emergency_Management_Reform_Act_pdf.pdf. 
  18. ↑ Grunwald, Michael; Glasser, Susan (December 23, 2005). "Brown's Turf Wars Sapped FEMA's Strength". The Washington Post: p. A01. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/22/AR2005122202213.html. 
  19. ↑ Senate Bipartisan Committee (February 15, 2006), "The Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C.
  20. ↑ Senate Bipartisan Committee, 2006, p. 208.
  21. ↑ "Build A Kit | Ready.gov". https://www.ready.gov/build-a-kit. 
  22. ↑ "Make A Plan | Ready.gov". https://www.ready.gov/make-a-plan. 
  23. ↑ "About the Ready Campaign | Ready.gov". https://www.ready.gov/about-us. 
  24. ↑ "Emergency Preparedness". AdCouncil. http://www.adcouncil.org/Our-Campaigns/Safety/Emergency-Preparedness. 
  25. ↑ "Surge Capacity Force". January 30, 2013. https://www.dhs.gov/surge-capacity-force. Retrieved 2021-06-03. 
  26. ↑ Cole, Devan (March 22, 2020). "Illinois governor says 'it's a wild west' for medical supplies because of Trump's response to states' requests". CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/22/politics/pritzker-illinois-states-competing-medical-supplies/index.html. 
  27. ↑ Serving America's Disaster Victims: FEMA Where Does it Fit? Archived September 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Homeland Security Policy Institute. January 13, 2009.
  28. ↑ Reese, Shawn (2016-10-28). "Department of Homeland Security Preparedness Grants: A Summary and Issues". Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/homesec/R44669.pdf. 
  29. ↑ "Nonprofit Security Grant Program: Summary and Potential Issues for Congress". Congressional Research Service. 2022-02-18. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11861/2. 
  30. ↑ Deutch, Gabby (2023-11-06). "Schumer calls for $1 billion in federal nonprofit security funding". Jewish Insider. https://jewishinsider.com/2023/11/chuck-schumer-national-security-grant-program-antisemitism/. 
  31. ↑ Beutel, Alejandro (2022-02-15). "Assessing the Non-Profit Security Grant Program After Colleyville". New Lines Institute. https://newlinesinstitute.org/nonstate-actors/civil-society/assessing-the-non-profit-security-grant-program-after-colleyville/. 
  32. ↑ Rod, Marc (2022-12-21). "NSGP funding increase called a positive step, but also disappointing shortfall". Jewish Insider. https://jewishinsider.com/2022/12/nonprofit-security-grant-program-funding-religious-institutions-nonprofits-security/. 
  33. ↑ "Department of Homeland Security Federal Emergency Management Agency, Fiscal Year 2018".
  34. ↑ "Hurricane Sandy Anniversary 2014: Billions Of Dollars In Federal Aid Still Unpaid". October 29, 2014. http://www.ibtimes.com/hurricane-sandy-anniversary-2014-billions-dollars-federal-aid-still-unpaid-1715019. 
  35. ↑ "FY2015 FEMA Budget". https://www.c-span.org/video/?318471-1/fy2015-fema-budget. 
  36. ↑ "FEMA Wasted Billions on Administrative Costs". http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/2014/12/19/FEMA-Wasted-Billions-Administrative-Costs. 
  37. ↑ "Why New Jersey Got Billions Less Than New York in FEMA Disaster Aid After Sandy – NJ Spotlight". July 9, 2015. http://www.njspotlight.com/stories/15/07/08/why-new-jersey-got-billions-less-in-fema-sandy-aid-than-new-york/. 
  38. ↑ "Regional Operations | FEMA.gov". http://www.fema.gov/regional-operations. 
  39. ↑ "Cadres". May 7, 2024. https://www.fema.gov/careers/paths/cadres. 
  40. ↑ "Mitigation". Federal Emergency Management Agency. Archived July 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "FEMA's Mitigation Directorate Fact Sheet". Federal Emergency Management Agency.
  42. ↑ HAZUS Archived July 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine is a computer model for hurricane, earthquake, and flood damage estimates.
  43. ↑ "FEMA: Severe Repetitive Loss Program". http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/srl/index.shtm. 
  44. ↑ "Grant Program Comparison: Mitigation Division Grant Programs". Archived October 10, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  45. ↑ Debt-Laden FEMA Is Slow To Act On Program That Buys Flooded Houses
  46. ↑ Planet Money – Episode 797: Flood Money
  47. ↑ Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP)
  48. ↑ "National Response Framework : Second Edition". May 2013. http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1914-25045-1246/final_national_response_framework_20130501.pdf. 
  49. ↑ "FEMA's State-of-the-Art National Response Coordination Center". http://2002-2009-fpc.state.gov/70271.htm. 
  50. ↑ National Response Framework. May 2013. p. 43. 
  51. ↑ "National Response Coordination Center: It Takes A Whole Community for Response". http://www.fema.gov/employee-news-and-announcements/national-response-coordination-center-it-takes-whole-community. 
  52. ↑ "Homeland Security Today: FEMA Monitors Colorado Flooding; Supports State, Local Response". http://www.hstoday.us/industry-news/general/single-article/fema-monitors-colorado-flooding-supports-state-local-response/4249676e84e5995ade9232ec49d2052b.html. 
  53. ↑ Here’s what Vail learned when it tried out the "Presidential Alert" messaging system FEMA will test Wednesday Denver Post, 2018-10-01.
  54. ↑ "Presidential alert" sounds off on mobile phones nationwide Denver Post, 2018-10-03.
  55. ↑ FEMA, DHS "Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following RDD and IND incidents" Archived May 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 6, 2011.
  56. ↑ "Nuclear Attack Planning BaseTemplate:Spaced ndash 1990.
  57. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2088: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  58. ↑ Limardo, Jessica. "First FEMA Incident Workforce Academy class graduates" Archived February 13, 2014, at archive.today. BioPrepWatch. February 13, 2014. (Retrieved February 13, 2014).
  59. ↑ "Emergency Management Institute (EMI) – EMI Programs and Activities". http://www.training.fema.gov/programs/. 
  60. ↑ "Emergency Management". April 4, 2014. http://www.frederick.edu/courses_and_programs/degree_emergency_management.aspx. 
  61. ↑ Announcing the Creation of FEMA Corps. FEMA.gov (June 16, 2012). Retrieved August 16, 2013.
  62. ↑ "Join AmeriCorps NCCC". September 16, 2022. https://americorps.gov/serve/americorps/americorps-nccc/join. 
  63. ↑ Welcome to the FEMA Corps Inaugural Class |Homeland Security. Dhs.gov (September 14, 2012). Retrieved August 16, 2013.
  64. ↑ Segal AmeriCorps Education Award. Americorps.gov Retrieved March 2, 2023
  65. ↑ Settle, Allen (1985). "Financing Disaster Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery". Public Administration Review 45: 101–106. doi:10.2307/3135004. JSTOR 3135004. [permanent dead link]
  66. ↑ Settle, Allen (1985). "Financing Disaster Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery". Public Administration Review 45: 101–106. doi:10.2307/3135004. JSTOR 3135004. [permanent dead link]
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Settle, Allen K. (1985). "Financing Disaster Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery". Public Administration Review 45: 101–106. doi:10.2307/3135004. ISSN 0033-3352. JSTOR 3135004. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3135004. 

Further reading

  • Garrett, Thomas A., and Russell S. Sobel. "The political economy of FEMA disaster payments." Economic inquiry 41.3 (2003): 496–509.
Sobel, Russell S., Christopher J. Coyne, and Peter T. Leeson. "The political economy of FEMA: did reorganization matter?." Journal of Public Finance and Public Choice 25.2-3 (2007): 151-167 online Archived October 7, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
  • Kneeland, Timothy W. Playing Politics with Natural Disaster: Hurricane Agnes, the 1972 Election, and the Origins of FEMA (Cornell University Press, 2020) online
  • Kousky, Carolyn. "Facts about FEMA household disaster aid: examining the 2008 floods and tornadoes in Missouri." Weather, Climate, and Society 5.4 (2013): 332–344. online
  • Lindsay, Bruce R. FEMA Disaster Housing: The Individuals and Households Program--Implementation and Potential Issues for Congress (Congressional Research Service, 2017) online.
  • Murphree, Vanessa, Bryan H. Reber, and Frederick Blevens. "Superhero, instructor, optimist: FEMA and the frames of disaster in Hurricanes Katrina and Rita." Journal of Public Relations Research 21.3 (2009): 273–294.
  • Sadiq, Abdul-Akeem, Kevin Tharp, and John D. Graham. "FEMA versus local governments: Influence and reliance in disaster preparedness." Natural hazards 82.1 (2016): 123–138. online
  • Schneider, Saundra K. "FEMA, federalism, Hugo, and'Frisco." Publius: The Journal of Federalism 20.3 (1990): 97–116.
  • MSNBC Article Senate panel recommends abolishing FEMA
  • Federal Emergency Management: A Brief Introduction from the Congressional Research Service

External links

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