Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|United States government public health agency}}
{{Organization
{{redirect|CDC}}
|OrganizationName=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
{{redirect|Centers for Disease Control|affiliated agencies outside the US|List of national public health agencies}}
|OrganizationType=Federal agency
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2019}}
|Mission=The mission of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is to protect America from health, safety, and security threats, both foreign and in the U.S.
{{Use American English|date=March 2020}}
* Detect and respond to new and emerging health threats.
{{Infobox government agency
* Tackle the biggest health problems causing death and disability for Americans.
| agency_name    = {{wikidata|title}}
* Put science and advanced technology into action to prevent disease
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| preceding1      = Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities (1942)
| preceding2      = Office of Malaria Control in War Areas (1942–46)
| preceding3      = Communicable Disease Center (1946–67)
| preceding4      = National Communicable Disease Center (1967–70)
| preceding5      = Center for Disease Control (1970–80)
| preceding6      = Centers for Disease Control (1980–92)
<!--| preceding7      = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1992–Present) Broken! -->
| dissolved      =
| superseding    =
| jurisdiction    = {{Wikidata|property|linked|P1001}}
| headquarters    = [[Atlanta]], Georgia, U.S.
| coordinates    = {{Coord|33|47|58|N|84|19|42|W|region:US-GA_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| employees      = {{Wikidata|property|edit|P1128}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Salary Statistics |url=https://www.federalpay.org/employees/centers-for-disease-control-and-preventn |website=federalpay.org |access-date=July 4, 2019 |quote=The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention had 10,899 employees in 2015 ...}}</ref>
| budget          = US$11.581{{nbsp}}billion (FY24)
| minister1_name  =
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| minister2_name  =
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| chief1_name    = {{Wikidata|property|linked|edit|P1037}}
| chief1_position = Director
| chief2_name    = {{Wikidata|property|linked|edit|P2098}}
| chief2_position = Principal Deputy Director
| parent_agency  = {{Wikidata|property|linked|P749}}
| website        = {{OfficialURL}}
| parent_department =
}}
 
The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' ('''CDC''') is the [[National public health institutes|national public health agency]] of the United States. It is a [[Federal agencies of the United States|United States federal agency]] under the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]], and is headquartered in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy-2020-cdc-contingency-staffing-plan/index.html|title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=October 4, 2019|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=May 15, 2020|archive-date=April 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410150453/https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy-2020-cdc-contingency-staffing-plan/index.html}}</ref><ref name=NiesseEmoryannexed>{{cite news|author=Niesse, Mark|url=http://www.ajc.com/news/local-govt--politics/city-atlanta-expansion-emory-and-cdc-approved/kMYzghHbvzD6THTyWpN1zH/|title=City of Atlanta's expansion to Emory and CDC approved|work=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|access-date=December 5, 2017}}</ref>
 
The agency's main goal is the protection of [[public health]] and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and [[disability]] in the US and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2014-04-14 |title=Mission, Role and Pledge |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118010457/https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm |archive-date=2017-01-18 |access-date= |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on [[infectious disease]], [[Foodborne illness|food borne pathogens]], [[environmental health]], [[occupational safety and health]], [[health promotion]], [[injury prevention]], and educational activities designed to improve the health of [[United States citizens]]. The CDC also conducts research and provides information on [[non-infectious diseases]], such as [[obesity]] and [[diabetes]], and is a founding member of the [[International Association of National Public Health Institutes]].<ref name="cdcoffwebsite">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov|title=Home: CDC|website=cdc.gov|access-date=November 19, 2008}}</ref>
 
The CDC's current Director is [[Mandy Cohen]] who assumed office on July 10, 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-07-01|title=Director|url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/leadership/director.htm|access-date=2023-07-10|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en}}</ref>
 
==History==
{{See also|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention timeline}}
=== Establishment ===
The '''Communicable Disease Center''' was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the [[World War II]] [[National Malaria Eradication Program|Malaria Control in War Areas]] program<ref name="pmid8955706">{{cite journal|author=Parascandola J|title=From MCWA to CDC{{snd}}origins of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|journal=Public Health Reports|date=November–December 1996|pmid=8955706|volume=111|issue=6|pages =549–551|pmc=1381908}}</ref> of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities.<ref name="NARA">{{cite web|title=Records of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Record Group 442) 1921–2004 |work=Guide to Federal Records |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=United States |date=November 9, 2010 |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html |access-date=2009-10-04 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101119230544/http://archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html |archive-date=November 19, 2010  }}</ref>
 
Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in [[malaria]] control were the Malaria Commission of the [[League of Nations]] and the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].<ref name="Najera">{{cite journal|author=Nájera JA|title=Malaria control: achievements, problems and strategies|journal=Parassitologia|volume=43|issue=1–2|pages=1–89|date=June 2001|pmid=11921521}}</ref> The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control,<ref name="Najera" /> sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency.<ref name="Stapelton">{{cite journal|author=Stapleton DH|title=Lessons of history? Anti-malaria strategies of the International Health Board and the Rockefeller Foundation from the 1920s to the era of DDT|journal=Public Health Rep|volume=119|issue=2|pages=206–215|year=2004|pmid=15192908|pmc=1497608|doi=10.1177/003335490411900214}}</ref>
 
The new agency was a branch of the [[U.S. Public Health Service]] and Atlanta was chosen as the location because [[malaria]] was endemic in the Southern United States.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/repo_A87OY4Vt|title=War, Tropical Disease, and the Emergence of National Public Health Capacity in the United States|last=Sledge|first=Daniel|date=2012|journal=Studies in American Political Development|volume=26|issue=2|pages=125–162|doi=10.1017/S0898588X12000107|hdl=10106/24372|s2cid=145297402|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting the name ''Communicable Disease Center'' in 1946. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street.<ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=2017-03-22|title=Celebrating 7 Decades of Firsts|url=https://www.cdc.gov/museum/history/celebrating-7decades.html|access-date=2020-06-14|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref>
 
With a budget at the time of about $1{{nbsp}}million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in [[mosquito]] abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States<ref>{{cite web|author=Division of Parasitic Diseases|title=Malaria Control in War Areas (1942–1945)|work=The History of Malaria, an Ancient Disease (2004)|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|location=[[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]|date=February 8, 2010|url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/index.htm#mcwa|access-date=2011-03-21}}</ref> (see [[National Malaria Eradication Program]]).
 
Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally [[entomology]] and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with [[DDT]]. In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn. Under [[Joseph Walter Mountin]], the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other [[Infectious disease|communicable diseases]].<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=2030772|pmid=14930166|volume=67|issue=5|title=Dr. Joseph W. Mountin, pioneer in public health, 1891–1952|year=1952|journal=Public Health Rep|page=425|last1=Scheele|first1=L. A}}</ref>
 
In 1947, the CDC made a token payment of $10 to [[Emory University]] for {{convert|15|acre|m2}} of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2019. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the "gift" was [[Robert W. Woodruff]], [[chairman of the board]] of [[The Coca-Cola Company]]. Woodruff had a long-time interest in [[malaria]] control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established.<ref name="pmid8955706" />
 
=== Growth ===
[[File:CDC Cifton Road campus 1963.jpg|thumb|The Communicable Disease Center moved to its current headquarters in 1960.  Building 1 is pictured in 1963.]]
In 1951, Chief Epidemiologist [[Alexander Langmuir|Alexander Langmuir's]] warnings of potential [[biological warfare]] during the [[Korean War]] spurred the creation of the [[Epidemic Intelligence Service]] (EIS) as a two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology. The success of the EIS program led to the launch of [[Field Epidemiology Training Program]]s (FETP) in 1980, training more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/healthprotection/fetp-40th-anniversary/index.html|title=FETP 40th Anniversary &#124; Division of Global Health Protection &#124; Global Health &#124; CDC|date=March 12, 2021|website=CDC}}</ref> In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mark|first2=Sharon M.|last2=McDonnell|first3=Denise H.|last3=Werker|first4=Victor M.|last4=Cardenas|first5=Stephen B.|last5=Thacker|year=2001|title=Partnerships in International Applied Epidemiology Training and Service|journal=[[American Journal of Epidemiology]]|volume=154|issue=11|pages=993–999|doi=10.1093/aje/154.11.993|pmid=11724714|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network ([[TEPHINET]]) has graduated 950 students.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tephinet.org/training-programs/thailand-field-epidemiology-training-program|title=Thailand Field Epidemiology Training Program &#124; TEPHINET|website=www.tephinet.org}}</ref>
 
The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include [[sexually transmitted disease]]s when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Beth E. Meyerson|author2=Fred A. Martich|author3=Gerald P. Naehr|year=2008|title=Ready to Go: The History and Contributions of U.S. Public Health Advisors|location=Research Triangle Park|publisher=American Social Health Association}}</ref>
 
It became the '''National Communicable Disease Center''' effective July 1, 1967, and the '''Center for Disease Control''' on June 24, 1970.  At the end of the [[United States Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973|Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973]], it was promoted to being a principal operating agency of PHS.<ref name="NARA" />
 
=== Recent history ===
[[File:Arlen Specter Headquarters Building PHIL 7971.tif|Arlen Specter Headquarters and Emergency Operations Center|left|thumb]]It was renamed to the plural '''Centers for Disease Control''' effective October 14, 1980,<ref name="NARA" /> as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established.  By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and the Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] in 1973, and the [[National Center for Health Statistics]] in 1987.<ref name=":102">{{cite book |last=Etheridge |first=Elizabeth W. |url=https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz |title=Sentinel for Health: A History of the Centers for Disease Control |date=1992|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520910416 |location= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz/page/229 229–231], [https://archive.org/details/sentinelforhealt00eliz/page/342 342–343] |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref>
 
An act of the [[United States Congress]] appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition.<ref>{{cite journal|title=CDC: the nation's prevention agency |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=41 |issue=44 |page=833 |year=1992 |pmid=1331740 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00017924.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110611163317/http://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00017924.htm |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |url-status=live |author1=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) }}</ref>  Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include [[Chronic (medical)|chronic diseases]], [[Disability|disabilities]], injury control, [[Occupational safety and health|workplace hazards]], [[environmental health]] threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including [[Congenital disorder|birth defects]], [[West Nile virus]], [[obesity]], [[Avian influenza|avian]], [[Swine influenza|swine]], and [[pandemic flu]], [[Escherichia coli|E. coli]], and [[bioterrorism]], to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of [[penicillin]]. In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including [[Botulinum toxin]], [[West Nile virus]], ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' and [[Dengue fever]] virus.<ref>"The eleventh plague: the politics of biological and chemical warfare" (pp. 84–86) by [http://www.leonardcole.com Leonard A. Cole] (1993)</ref>
 
On April 21, 2005, then–CDC Director [[Julie Gerberding]] formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/futures/g_letter_04-21-05.htm|title=Letter from Dr. Gerberding |date=April 21, 2005 |first1=Julie Louise |last1=Gerberding |publisher=CDC, Office of Director, The Futures Initiative |access-date=2008-12-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629062149/http://www.cdc.gov/futures/g_letter_04-21-05.htm|archive-date=June 29, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> She established four Coordinating Centers. In 2009 the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]]  re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer.<ref>{{cite web|last=Koenig|first=Robert|url=http://blogs.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2009/08/new-chief-order.html|title=New Chief Orders CDC to Cut Management Layers|publisher=Science |website=ScienceInsider |date=August 7, 2009 |access-date=2012-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920141107/http://blogs.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2009/08/new-chief-order.html|archive-date=September 20, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
As of 2013, the CDC's [[Biosafety Level 4]] laboratories were among the few that exist in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dhcpp/vspb |website=DHCPP {{!}} NCEZID {{!}} CDC |title=Viral Special Pathogens Branch|access-date=2016-05-18}}</ref> They included one of only two official repositories of [[smallpox]] in the world, with the other one located at the [[State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR]] in the Russian Federation. In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were "potentially infected" with [[anthrax]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Scutti |first=Susan |url=http://www.newsweek.com/recent-cdc-anthrax-and-smallpox-mishaps-signal-potential-dangers-259923 |title=CDC Smallpox and Anthrax Mishaps Signal Other Potential Dangers |website=[[Newsweek]] |date=2014-07-16 |access-date=2017-02-26}}</ref>
 
The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the [[Atlanta City Council]] had voted to do so the prior December.<ref name="NiesseEmoryannexed" /> The CDC and [[Emory University]] had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a [[MARTA]] expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars.<ref>{{cite web | title=Emory, CDC to be Annexed into Atlanta | last1=Chess | first1=Richard | last2=Bober | first2=Madison | url=https://emorywheel.com/emory-cdc-to-be-annexed-into-atlanta/ | date=December 4, 2017 | website=The Emory Wheel | access-date=May 27, 2023}}</ref> The headquarters were located in an [[unincorporated area]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Torpy, Bill|url=https://www.ajc.com/news/local/torpy-large-dekalb-has-annexation-anxiety-over-emory-cdc/EyaVzWIjxULTGi4iv7xwLK/|title=Torpy at Large: DeKalb has annexation anxiety over Emory, CDC|work=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|date=2017-08-07|access-date=2020-03-11}}</ref> statistically in the [[Druid Hills, Georgia|Druid Hills]] [[census-designated place]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10map/GUBlock/st13_ga/place/p1324264_druid_hills/DC10BLK_P1324264_001.pdf|title=2010 Census Block Map – Druid Hills CDP, GA|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2023-07-11}} – Compare with [https://web.archive.org/web/20100203031222/https://www.cdc.gov/ the address]: "1600 Clifton Rd. Atlanta, GA 30333, USA"</ref>
 
On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations."<ref>{{cite news |last=Steenhuysen |first=Julie |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/cdc-plans-reorganize-structure-after-pandemic-related-criticism-wsj-2022-08-17/ |title=U.S. CDC plans to focus on public health response after pandemic failings |work=[[Reuters]] |date=2022-08-17 |accessdate=2022-08-17 }}</ref> Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times).<ref name=nytreorg/>
 
==Organization==
{{Main|Organization of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}
 
[[File:CDC Headquarters PHIL 10693.tif|CDC's Roybal campus in Atlanta, Georgia|thumb]]
[[File:Tom Harkin Global Communications Center PHIL 8876.tif|Tom Harkin Global Communications Center|thumb]]
[[File:CDC HDR I.jpg|thumb|CDC Building 17 in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], as seen from [[Emory University]]]]
The CDC is organized into "Centers, Institutes, and Offices" (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing the agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats.<ref name="pmid8955706" />
 
As of the most recent reorganization in February 2023, the CIOs are:<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2023-02-21 |title=CDC Organization |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/cio.htm |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref>
* Director
** [[National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases]]
** National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases
*** [[Division of Global Migration Health]]<ref>{{cite web |last=National Center of Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease |date=February 14, 2019 |title=Divisions and Office Overview |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/who-we-are/ncezid-divisions/index.html |access-date=30 October 2020 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref>
** [[National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention]]
** National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
** National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
** National Center for Environmental Health / [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]]
** [[National Center for Injury Prevention and Control]]
** [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]
** Public Health Infrastructure Center
** Global Health Center
** Immediate Office of the Director
*** Chief of Staff
*** Office of the Chief Operating Officer
*** Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation
*** Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity
*** Office of Communications
*** Office of Health Equity
*** Office of Science
*** CDC Washington Office
*** Office of Laboratory Science and Safety
*** Office of Readiness and Response
**** Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics
*** Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology
**** [[National Center for Health Statistics]]
 
The Office of Public Health Preparedness was created during the 2001 anthrax attacks shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Its purpose was to coordinate among the government the response to a range of biological terrorism threats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/05/politics/bio-terrorism-office-gets-a-new-director.html|title=Bio-terrorism Office Gets a New Director|date=2002-05-02|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=2018-10-17}}</ref>
 
=== Locations ===
Most CDC centers are located in [[Atlanta]].  Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative [[Edward R. Roybal]]), contains the premier [[BSL4]] laboratory in the United States.<ref name="b18ie">{{cite news |title=CDC Structural Façade Inspection, Building 18 |url=https://ieiusa.com/iei-portfolio/cdc-structural-facade-inspection-building-18-altanta-ga/ |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Innovative Engineering}}</ref><ref name="mcwcdc">{{cite news |title=Centre for Disease Control – Building 18 |url=http://www.mcw.com/Projects/Details?f=m&title=Centre-for-Disease-Control---Building-18 |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=MCW Hemisphere |archive-date=August 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821214417/http://www.mcw.com/Projects/Details?f=m&title=Centre-for-Disease-Control---Building-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ayusa">{{cite news |last1=Young |first1=Alison |title=Newly disclosed CDC biolab failures 'like a screenplay for a disaster movie' |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/06/02/newly-disclosed-cdc-lab-incidents-fuel-concerns-safety-transparency/84978860/ |publisher=[[USA Today]] |date=2 June 2016}}</ref>
 
A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations:<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-23|title=Living in Atlanta|url=https://www.cdc.gov/jobs/living-in-atlanta.html|access-date=2019-05-29|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
* The [[National Center for Health Statistics]] is primarily located in [[Hyattsville, Maryland]], with a branch in [[Research Triangle Park]] in North Carolina.
* The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]'s primary locations are [[Cincinnati]]; [[Morgantown, West Virginia]]; [[Pittsburgh]]; [[Spokane, Washington]]; and [[Washington, D.C.]], with branches in [[Denver]]; [[Anchorage, Alaska]]; and Atlanta.
* The CDC Washington Office is based in Washington, D.C.
* Two divisions of the [[National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases]] are based outside Atlanta.  The Division of Vector-Borne Diseases is based in [[Fort Collins, Colorado]], with a branch in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]].  The Arctic Investigations Program is based in Anchorage.
 
In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-24|title=U.S. Quarantine Stations|url=https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/quarantine-stations-us.html|access-date=2019-05-29|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
 
==Budget==
The CDC budget for fiscal year 2024 is $11.581{{nbsp}}billion.<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=CDC |date=9 March 2023 |title=CDC Statement on President’s Fiscal Year 2024 Budget |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2023/s0309-budget.html|accessdate=2 October 2024}}</ref>
 
== Workforce ==
{{As of|2021|post=,}} CDC staff numbered approximately 15,000 personnel (including 6,000 contractors and 840 [[United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps]] officers) in 170 occupations. Eighty percent held bachelor's degrees or higher; almost half had advanced degrees (a master's degree or a doctorate such as a PhD, [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|D.O.]], or [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/stateofcdc/html/budget-workforce.htm|title=State of CDC: Budget and Workforce|author=Office of the Associate Director for Communication|date=May 19, 2010|work=CDC Impact Story Topics|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|format=[[XHTML]]|access-date=2011-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122030856/http://www.cdc.gov/about/stateofcdc/html/budget-workforce.htm|archive-date=January 22, 2013|url-status=dead}} For more data on 2008, click on the "2008" link.</ref>
 
Common CDC job titles include engineer, [[entomologist]], [[epidemiologist]], biologist, physician, [[veterinarian]], [[Behavioural sciences|behavioral scientist]], [[nurse]], [[medical technologist]], economist, public health advisor, health communicator, [[toxicologist]], chemist, [[computer scientist]], and statistician.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/employment/menu_topjobs.html|title=Top Jobs at the CDC|date=April 1, 2008|work=Employment Information Homepage|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=2011-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116010109/http://www.cdc.gov/employment/menu_topjobs.html|archive-date=November 16, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> The CDC also operates a number of notable training and fellowship programs, including those indicated below.
 
=== Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) ===
The [[Epidemic Intelligence Service]] (EIS) is composed of "boots-on-the-ground disease detectives" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/eis/index.html|title=Epidemic Intelligence Service|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=September 27, 2016}}</ref> When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or "Epi-Aids", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/eis/epiaids.html|title=Epidemiologic Assistance|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=September 27, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Infectious diseases: emergence and re-emergence: a geographical analysis|last=Cliff|first=A.D.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0199244737|location=Oxford, UK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Koplan|first1=Jeffrey P.|last2=Foege|first2=William H.|date=2011-12-01|title=Introduction: the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Epi-Aids – a fond recollection|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology|volume=174|issue=11 Suppl|pages=S1–3|doi=10.1093/aje/kwr303|issn=1476-6256|pmid=22135388|doi-access=free}}</ref> The EIS program is a model for the international [[Field Epidemiology Training Program]].
 
=== Public Health Associates Program ===
The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States. PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently{{when|date=August 2019}} has 159 associates in 34 states.<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/phap/index.html Public Health Associate Program website], CDC; retrieved April 12, 2014.</ref>
 
==Leadership==
[[File:David J. Sencer.png|thumb|David Sencer points to a depiction of ''Triatomine sp.'', which transmits [[Chagas disease]].]]
 
The Director of CDC is a [[Senior Executive Service (United States)|Senior Executive Service]] position<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-PLUMBOOK-2016/content-detail.html|title=United States Government Policy and Supporting Positions (Plum Book)|date=2016|website=U.S. Government Publishing Office|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref> that may be filled either by a career employee, or as a [[Political appointments in the United States|political appointment]] that does not [[List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation|require Senate confirmation]], with the latter method typically being used. The director serves at the pleasure of the President and may be fired at any time.<ref name=":102" /><ref name="Frieden">Wilgoren, Debbi and Shear, Michael D.  [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/15/AR2009051500295.html "Obama Chooses NYC Health Chief to Head CDC"], ''The Washington Post'', May 16, 2009.</ref><ref>Patel, Kant; Rushefsky, Mark E.; and McFarlane, Deborah R. ''The Politics of Public Health in the United States''. M.E. Sharpe, 2005; {{ISBN|978-0765611352}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}.</ref>  On January 20, 2025, the CDC Director position will change to require Senate confirmation, due to a provision in the [[Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Frieden |first=Joyce |date=2023-06-28 |title=CDC Director Post Will Require Senate Confirmation Starting in 2025 |url=https://www.medpagetoday.com/washington-watch/washington-watch/105249 |access-date=2023-09-13 |website=MedPage Today |language=en}}</ref>  The CDC Director concurrently serves as the Administrator of the [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dull | first=H. Bruce |date=May–June 1991 |title=About the CDC |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=188 |doi= 10.1016/s0749-3797(18)30938-3}}</ref>
 
Twenty directors have{{when|date=August 2022}} served the CDC or its predecessor agencies, including three who have served during the Trump administration (including Anne Schuchat who twice served as acting director)<ref name="NARA" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Past CDC Directors/Administrators|work=Office of Enterprise Communication|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services)|date=February 19, 2009|url= https://www.cdc.gov/about/history/pastdirectors.htm|access-date=2009-05-19}}</ref> and three who have served during the Carter administration (including one acting director not shown here).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704740604576301531342633482|title=Health Official Reigned in '76 Swine-Flu Fight|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> Two served under Bill Clinton, but only one under the Nixon to Ford terms.
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|-
!Portrait
!Director
!Took office
!Left office
|-
|[[File:Louis L. Williams.jpg|100px]]
|[[Louis L. Williams]] Jr.
|1942
|1943
|-
|[[File:Mark D. Hollis.jpg|100px]]
|[[Mark D. Hollis]]
|1944
|1946
|-
|[[File:Raymond A. Vonderlehr.jpg|100px]]
|[[Raymond A. Vonderlehr]]
|1947
|1951
|-
|[[File:Justin M. Andrews.jpg|100px]]
|[[Justin M. Andrews]]
|1952
|1953
|-
|[[File:Theodore J. Bauer.jpg|100px]]
|[[Theodore J. Bauer]]
|1953
|1956
|-
|[[File:Robert J Anderson.jpg|100px]]
|[[Robert J. Anderson (public health administrator)|Robert J. Anderson]]
|October 1, 1956
|June 30, 1960
|-
|[[File:Clarence A. Smith.jpg|100px]]
|[[Clarence A. Smith]]
|1960
|1962
|-
|[[File:James L. Goddard.gif|100px]]
|[[James L. Goddard]]
|1962
|January 1966
|-
|[[File:David Sencer portrait.png|100px]]
|[[David Sencer|David J. Sencer]]
|1966
|May 1977
|-
|[[File:William H. Foege.jpg|100px]]
|[[William Foege|William H. Foege]]
|May 1977
|1983
|-
|[[File:James O. Mason USPHS.jpg|100px]]
|[[James O. Mason]]
|1983
|1989
|-
|[[File:William L Roper.jpg|100px]]
|[[William L. Roper]]
|March 1, 1990
|June 30, 1993
|-
|[[File:David Satcher official photo portrait.jpg|100px]]
|[[David Satcher]]
|1993
|February 13, 1998
|-
|[[File:Jeffrey P. Koplan.jpg|100px]]
|[[Jeffrey Koplan|Jeffrey P. Koplan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ianphi.org/who-we-are/biography-executive.cfm/third/executive/staff_id/0DC197D2-123F-73FE-89B61A336FB4B8D5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015040509/http://ianphi.org/who-we-are/biography-executive.cfm/third/executive/staff_id/0DC197D2-123F-73FE-89B61A336FB4B8D5|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-10-15|title=National Public Health Institute, NPHI Advocacy|publisher=IANPHI|access-date=2012-04-16}}</ref>
|October 5, 1998
|March 31, 2002
|-
|[[File:JGerberding cdc photo.jpg|100px]]
|[[Julie Gerberding]]
|June 3, 2002
|January 20, 2009
|-
|[[File:Thomas Frieden official CDC portrait.jpg|100px]]
|[[Tom Frieden|Thomas R. Frieden]]<ref name="Frieden" />
|June 8, 2009
|January 20, 2017
|-
|[[File:Anne Schuchat, 2018.jpg|100px]]
|[[Anne Schuchat]] (acting)<ref name="Schuchat">{{cite web|url = https://www.cdc.gov/about/leadership/leaders/pdd.html|title = Principal Deputy Director: Anne Schuchat, MD |website = cdc.gov|date =2 August 2019}}</ref>
|January 20, 2017
|July 7, 2017
|-
|[[File:Brenda Fitzgerald official photo.jpg|100px]]
|[[Brenda Fitzgerald]]<ref name="Fitzgerald">{{Cite news|url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/371592-cdc-head-resigns-after-report-she-traded-tobacco-stocks/|title=CDC head resigns after report she traded tobacco stocks|last=Hellmann|first=Jessie|date=January 31, 2018|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|access-date=January 31, 2018}}</ref>
|July 7, 2017
|January 31, 2018
|-
|[[File:Anne Schuchat, 2018.jpg|100px]]
|[[Anne Schuchat]] (acting)
|January 31, 2018
|March 26, 2018
|-
|[[File:Robert R. Redfield.jpg|100px]]
|[[Robert R. Redfield]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2018/03/21/longtime-aids-researcher-robert-redfield-picked-to-lead-cdc/|title=Longtime AIDS researcher Robert Redfield picked to lead CDC|last=Sun|first=Lena H.|date=2018-03-21|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=2018-03-22|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
|March 26, 2018
|January 20, 2021
|-
|[[File:Rochelle Walensky, CDC Director (cropped).jpg|100px]]
|[[Rochelle Walensky]]
|January 20, 2021
|June 30, 2023
|-
|[[File:Nirav D. Shah.png|100px]]
|[[Nirav D. Shah]] (acting)
|July 1, 2023
|July 10, 2023
|-
|[[File:Mandy K. Cohen, CDC Director.jpg|100px]]
|[[Mandy Cohen]]
|July 10, 2023
|Present
|-
|}
 
==Datasets and survey systems==
* CDC Scientific Data, Surveillance, Health Statistics, and Laboratory Information.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/scientific.htm|title=CDC Data and Statistics|publisher=CDC – National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion|access-date=2006-08-10}}</ref>
* [[Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System]] (BRFSS), the world's largest, ongoing telephone health-survey system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/BRFSS|title=Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System|publisher=CDC: National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion|access-date=2006-08-05}}</ref>
* [https://www.cdc.gov/prams/index.htm Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System] (PRAMS), a surveillance system on maternal and infant health with telephone and mail questionnaires in English and Spanish<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Kevin |last2=Sha |first2=M. Mandy |date=2013-03-01 |title=A Comparison of Results from a Spanish and English Mail Survey: Effects of Instruction Placement on Item Missingness |url=https://surveyinsights.org/?p=1741 |journal=Survey Methods: Insights from the Field (SMIF) |language=en-US |doi=10.13094/SMIF-2013-00006 |issn=2296-4754 |doi-access=free}}</ref> in 50 US jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-22 |title=About PRAMS {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/prams/about/prams-faq.htm |access-date=2023-12-21 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref>
* [[Mortality Medical Data System]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/major/dvs/about.htm|title=NCHS – Mortality Data – About the Mortality Medical Data System|publisher=CDC – National Center for Health Statistics|access-date=2007-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Abortion statistics in the United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/Data_Stats/index.htm|title=CDC – Data and Statistics – Reproductive Health|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=April 4, 2012|access-date=2012-04-16}}</ref>
* CDC WONDER (Wide-ranging ONline Data for Epidemiologic Research)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wonder.cdc.gov/|title=CDC WONDER|website=wonder.cdc.gov}}</ref>
* Data systems of the [[National Center for Health Statistics]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/index.htm|title=CDC – NCHS – National Center for Health Statistics|date=August 8, 2021|website=CDC}}</ref>
 
==Areas of focus==
[[File:Smallpox eradication team.jpg|thumb|[[Donald Henderson]] as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966]]
 
===Communicable diseases===
The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including [[smallpox]], [[measles]], and others.
 
==== Influenza ====
 
The CDC targets the transmission of [[influenza]], including the [[H1N1]] swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cdc.gov/flu/index.htm|title = Influenza (Flu)|date = June 4, 2021|publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
 
==== Division of Select Agents and Toxins ====
[[File:Preparing to enter Ebola treatment unit.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|CDC and [[Médecins Sans Frontières|MSF]] staff preparing to enter an [[Ebola]] treatment unit in [[Liberia]], August 2014]]
Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/phpr/dsat/about.htm|title=About the Division of Select Agents and Toxins|date=2018-10-10|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=2018-10-17}}</ref>
 
The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as [[anthrax]] and the [[Ebola virus]]. The program, called the Federal [[Select agent|Select Agent]] Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens.<ref>Cohen, Bryan. [http://bioprepwatch.com/biological-threats/cdcs-select-agents-program-protects-against-bioterror-threats/335879 "CDC's Select Agents Program protects against bioterror threats"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20141018024321/http://bioprepwatch.com/biological-threats/cdcs-select-agents-program-protects-against-bioterror-threats/335879 |date=October 18, 2014 }}, BioPrepWatch, February 10, 2014; accessed October 17, 2014.</ref>
 
During the [[Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa|2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa]], the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at [[Emory University Hospital]], the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Achenbach|first1=Joel|last2=Dennis|first2=Brady|last3=Hogan|first3=Caelainn|title=American doctor infected with Ebola returns to U.S.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/us-confirms-2-americans-with-ebola-coming-home-for-treatment/2014/08/01/c20a27cc-1995-11e4-9e3b-7f2f110c6265_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=August 2, 2014}}</ref>
 
As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus.<ref>{{cite web|title=Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2015|url=https://beta.congress.gov/113/bills/hjres124/BILLS-113hjres124ih.pdf|publisher=congress.gov|access-date=September 17, 2014}}</ref>
 
===Non-communicable diseases===
The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by [[obesity]], physical inactivity and tobacco-use.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/obesity|title=Overweight & Obesity|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=August 4, 2015}}</ref> The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by [[Lisa C. Richardson]], is also within this remit.<ref name="CDC - organisational chart 2021">{{cite web |title=Organization Chart |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/center/organization/index.htm |publisher=CDC |website = National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP)|date = 22 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="DCPC2020">{{cite web |title=Division of Cancer Prevention and Control – at a glance |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/pdf/aag/dcpc-H.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618075611/https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/pdf/aag/dcpc-H.pdf |archive-date=2019-06-18 |url-status=live |website=CDC |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref>
 
===Antibiotic resistance===
The CDC implemented their ''National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria'' as a measure against the spread of [[antibiotic resistance]] in the United States. This initiative has a budget of $161{{nbsp}}million and includes the development of the [[Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/solutions-initiative/ar-lab-networks.html |title=Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network &#124; Antibiotic/Antimicrobial Resistance &#124; CDC |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=2017-01-05 |access-date=2017-02-26}}</ref>


=== Global health ===
The CDC works towards these goals by conducting health promotion, prevention of disease, injury, and disability through activities
Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. They work with many international organizations such as the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/what/default.htm|title=CDC Global Health – What We're Doing|date=2017-09-15|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref> The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID).<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/organization.htm |title = Organization of the CDC Center for Global Health|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date = March 24, 2016}}</ref>
|ParentOrganization=Department of Health and Human Services
 
The CDC has been working with the WHO to implement the [[International Health Regulations|''International Health Regulations'' (IHR)]], an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD).<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.uniteforsight.org/surveillance/module2 | website = Unite for Sight | title = Module 2: WHO and CDC Global Surveillance Systems | access-date = January 20, 2017 | archive-date = June 22, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180622142529/http://www.uniteforsight.org/surveillance/module2 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
 
The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives [[President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief]] (PEPFAR) and [[President's Malaria Initiative]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhivtb/who-we-are/about-us/globalhiv/globalhiv.html|title=CDC's Role in Global HIV Control|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref>
 
===Travelers' health===
The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in a comprehensive book, ''CDC Health Information for International Travel'', which is commonly known as the "yellow book."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/yellowbook-home|title=2018 Yellow Book Home|website=CDC|access-date=June 1, 2017}}</ref> The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific [[Tourist attraction|travel destinations]]. The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels:
* "Watch": Level 1 (practice usual precautions)
* "Alert": Level 2 (practice enhanced precautions)
* "Warning": Level 3 (avoid nonessential travel)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices|title=Travel Health Notices|website=CDC |date = 29 August 2019}}</ref>
 
=== Vaccine safety ===
The CDC uses a number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines. The [[Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System]] (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA. "VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-23|title=Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/ensuringsafety/monitoring/vaers/index.html|access-date=2020-08-28|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of the latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-17|title=Safety Information by Vaccine|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/vaccines/index.html|access-date=2020-08-28|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
 
The [[Vaccine Safety Datalink]] (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events.<ref name="datalink">{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=R. T. |last2=Glasser |first2=J. W. |last3=Rhodes |first3=P. H. |last4=Davis |first4=R. L. |last5=Barlow |first5=W. E. |last6=Thompson |first6=R. S. |last7=Mullooly |first7=J. P. |last8=Black |first8=S. B. |last9=Shinefield |first9=H. R. |last10=Vadheim |first10=C. M. |last11=Marcy |first11=S. M. |last12=Ward |first12=J. I. |last13=Wise |first13=R. P. |last14=Wassilak |first14=S. G. |last15=Hadler |first15=S. C. |title=Vaccine Safety Datalink Project: A New Tool for Improving Vaccine Safety Monitoring in the United States |journal=Pediatrics |date=1 June 1997 |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=765–773 |doi=10.1542/peds.99.6.765|pmid=9164767 }}</ref> The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety.<ref name="CISA">{{cite web |title=Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) Project |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/ensuringsafety/monitoring/cisa/index.html |website=CDC |access-date=7 October 2022 |language=en-us |date=30 September 2021}}</ref>
 
CDC also runs a program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2022-07-18 |title=V-safe After Vaccination Health Checker |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/safety/vsafe.html |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref>
 
== CDC Foundation ==
The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit [[501(c)(3)]] organization incorporated in the State of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the [[Public Health Service Act]] to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=42 U.S. Code § 280e–11 – Establishment and duties of Foundation |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/280e-11 |website=Legal Information Institute |access-date=September 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918211846/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/280e-11 |archive-date=September 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdcfoundation.org|title=CDCfoundation.org|publisher=CDCfoundation.org|access-date=2012-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427005757/http://www.cdcfoundation.org|archive-date=April 27, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1995 to 2022, the Foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-07-07 |title=CDC Foundation |url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/business/cdcfoun.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725170721/https://www.cdc.gov/about/business/cdcfoun.htm |archive-date=2022-07-25 |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> [[Bill Cosby]] formerly served as a member of the Foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Stokes |first1=Charles |last2=Jacobs |first2=Phil |title=Fiscal Year 2008 Report to Contributors |url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/ReportToContributors_FY08.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806034654/https://www.cdcfoundation.org/sites/default/files/upload/pdf/ReportToContributors_FY08.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-06 |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=[[CDC Foundation]]}}</ref>
 
=== Activities ===
The Foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as [[cardiovascular disease]], [[cancer]], [[emergency response]], and [[Infectious diseases (medical specialty)|infectious diseases]], particularly [[HIV/AIDS]], [[Ebola]], [[rotavirus]], and [[COVID-19]].<ref name=":0"/>
* '''EmPOWERED Health Program:''' Launched in November 2019 with funding from [[Amgen]], the program works to empower cancer patients to become actively involved in the decision making around their treatments.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-09 |title=CDC Foundation Active Programs October 1, 2020 – September 30, 2021 |url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/CDCF-ActivePrograms-CDC-FY21?inline |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115161004/https://www.cdcfoundation.org/CDCF-ActivePrograms-CDC-FY21?inline |archive-date=2022-01-15 |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=[[CDC Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=EmPOWERED Health Program |url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/programs/empowered-health-program |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808155430/https://www.cdcfoundation.org/programs/empowered-health-program |archive-date=2022-08-08 |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=[[CDC Foundation]] |language=en}}</ref>
* '''Fries Prize for Improving Health:''' An annual prize first awarded in 1992 that "recognizes an individual who has made major accomplishments in health improvement and with the general criteria of the greatest good for the greatest number".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fries Prize for Improving Health {{!}} CDC Foundation |url=https://www.cdcfoundation.org/fries-prize-for-improving-health |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=www.cdcfoundation.org |language=en}}</ref>
 
=== Criticism ===
In 2015, ''[[BMJ]]'' associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lenzer |first=Jeanne |date=2015-05-15 |title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: protecting the private good? |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h2362 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=350 |pages=h2362 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h2362 |issn=1756-1833 |pmid=25979454|s2cid=37357486 }}</ref>
 
==Controversies==
 
===Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis in Black men===
For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]].<ref name="tuskegee">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm|title=U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee: The Tuskegee Timeline |publisher=National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, CDC|date = 22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103131421/https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm |archive-date=Jan 3, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease. The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their [[informed consent]] to serve as research subjects. The Tuskegee Study was [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment|initiated in 1932]] by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995.<ref name=tuskegee/>
 
===Gun control===
An area of partisan dispute related to CDC funding is studying firearms effectiveness.  Although the CDC was one of the first government agencies to study gun related data, in 1996 the [[Dickey Amendment]], passed with the support of the [[National Rifle Association of America]], states "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control".<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/pdf/PLAW-104publ208.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506002733/http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/pdf/PLAW-104publ208.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-06 |url-status=live|title=Public Law 104-208|date=September 30, 1996|work=Congressional Record|quote=... none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control.}}</ref>  Advocates for [[Gun politics in the United States|gun control]] oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it.<ref name=PRI>{{cite web|url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2015-07-02/quietly-congress-extends-ban-cdc-research-gun-violence|title=Quietly, Congress extends a ban on CDC research on guns|publisher=Pri.org|access-date=2015-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703074353/http://www.pri.org/stories/2015-07-02/quietly-congress-extends-ban-cdc-research-gun-violence|archive-date=July 3, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, [[Mark L. Rosenberg]] and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000. They focused on "identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them".<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/cdc-gun-violence/476814 |title=Why Did the CDC Stop Researching Guns? |newspaper=[[The Atlantic]] |quote="The agencys' former leaders say they could do more to explore the subject, but officials fear political{{snd}}and personal{{snd}}retribution." |first=Kate |last=Masters |date=April 5, 2016 |access-date=February 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405110730/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/cdc-gun-violence/476814 |archive-date=April 5, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Their first report, published in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' in 1993 entitled "Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home", reported "mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefold{{snd}}a "huge" increase."<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> In response, the NRA launched a "campaign to shut down the Injury Center."  Two conservative pro-gun groups, [[Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership]] and Doctors for Integrity and Policy Research joined the pro-gun effort, and, by 1995, politicians also supported the pro-gun initiative. In 1996, [[Jay Dickey]] (R) Arkansas introduced the Dickey Amendment statement stating "none of the funds available for injury prevention and control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may be used to advocate or promote gun control" as a rider.<ref name="auto"/> in the 1996 [[Appropriations bill (United States)|appropriations bill]]."<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> In 1997, "Congress re-directed all of the money for gun research to the study of traumatic brain injury."<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> [[David Satcher]], CDC head 1993–98<ref>{{cite web|author=Office of Public Health and Science |title=David Satcher (1998–2002) |url=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/history/biosatcher.htm |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |date=January 4, 2007 |access-date=January 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071205160010/http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/history/biosatcher.htm |archive-date=December 5, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> advocated for firearms research.<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/> In 2016 over a dozen "public health insiders, including current and former CDC senior leaders" told ''[[The Trace (website)|The Trace]]'' interviewers that CDC senior leaders took a cautious stance in their interpretation of the Dickey Amendment and that they could do more but were afraid of political and personal retribution.<ref name="theatlantic_Masters_2016"/>
 
In 2013, the [[American Medical Association]], the [[American Psychological Association]], and the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] sent a letter to the leaders of the Senate Appropriations Committee asking them "to support at least $10{{nbsp}}million within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in FY 2014 along with sufficient new taxes at the National Institutes of Health to support research into the causes and prevention of violence. Furthermore, we urge Members to oppose any efforts to reduce, eliminate, or condition CDC funding related to violence prevention research."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philly.com/philly/news/politics/congressional/Democrats_push_to_restart_CDC_funding_for_gun_violence_research.html|title=Democrats push to restart CDC funding for gun violence research|date=May 21, 2014 |publisher=Philly.com|access-date=2015-11-29}}</ref> Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets.<ref name=PRI/>
 
=== Ebola ===
In October 2014, the CDC gave a nurse with a fever who was later diagnosed with [[Ebola]] permission to board a commercial flight to [[Cleveland]].<ref>{{cite news |date=October 15, 2014 |title=Ebola nurse got CDC OK for Cleveland trip |url=http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/2014/10/15/second-dallas-hospital-worker-diagnosed-ebola/17290677/ |url-status=dead |access-date=October 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017141442/http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/health/2014/10/15/second-dallas-hospital-worker-diagnosed-ebola/17290677/ |archive-date=October 17, 2014}}</ref>
 
=== COVID-19 ===
{{See also|Trump administration communication during the COVID-19 pandemic#Testing|}}
The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, CDC director [[Rochelle Walensky]] acknowledged "some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications", based on the findings of an internal examination.<ref name=nytreorg>{{Cite news |last1=LaFraniere |first1=Sharon |last2=Weiland |first2=Noah |date=2022-08-17 |title=Walensky, Citing Botched Pandemic Response, Calls for C.D.C. Reorganization |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/17/us/politics/cdc-rochelle-walensky-covid.html |access-date=2022-08-21 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 
The first confirmed case of [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19]] was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holshue|first1=Michelle L.|last2=DeBolt|first2=Chas|last3=Lindquist|first3=Scott|last4=Lofy|first4=Kathy H.|last5=Wiesman|first5=John|last6=Bruce|first6=Hollianne|last7=Spitters|first7=Christopher|last8=Ericson|first8=Keith|last9=Wilkerson|first9=Sara|last10=Tural|first10=Ahmet|last11=Diaz|first11=George|date=2020-03-05|title=First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=10|pages=929–936|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001191|issn=0028-4793|pmc=7092802|pmid=32004427}}</ref> However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the [[Food and Drug Administration]] began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Whoriskey|first1=Peter|last2=Satija|first2=Neena|title=How U.S. coronavirus testing stalled: Flawed tests, red tape and resistance to using the millions of tests produced by the WHO|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/16/cdc-who-coronavirus-tests/}}</ref> In February 2020, as the CDC's early [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|coronavirus test]] malfunctioned nationwide,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first1=Sara |last1=Murray|first2=Nick |last2=Valencia|first3=Jeremy |last3=Diamond|first4=Scott |last4=Glover|title=How coronavirus testing fumbles squandered valuable time|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/20/politics/coronavirus-testing-trump-administration-response-invs/index.html|access-date=2020-08-09|website=[[CNN]]|date=April 20, 2020 }}</ref> CDC Director [[Robert R. Redfield]] reassured fellow officials on the [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials. It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab. Later investigations by the FDA and the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Willman|first=David|date=June 20, 2020|title=CDC coronavirus test kits were likely contaminated, federal review confirms|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/cdc-coronavirus-test-kits-were-likely-contaminated-federal-review-confirms/2020/06/20/1ceb4e16-b2ef-11ea-8f56-63f38c990077_story.html}}</ref> In November 2020, ''[[NPR]]'' reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kelly |first1=Alexandra |title=CDC knew first coronavirus test was flawed but released it anyway: report |url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/medical-advances/524784-cdc-knew-first-coronavirus-test-was-flawed-but/ |website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=November 6, 2020 |access-date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>
 
In May 2020, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests – tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus. The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Meyer|first=Alexis C. Madrigal, Robinson|date=2020-05-21|title=How Could the CDC Make That Mistake?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/05/cdc-and-states-are-misreporting-covid-19-test-data-pennsylvania-georgia-texas/611935/|access-date=2020-08-09|website=[[The Atlantic]]|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]]. Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stolberg|first=Sheryl Gay|date=2020-07-14|title=Trump Administration Strips C.D.C. of Control of Coronavirus Data|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/14/us/politics/trump-cdc-coronavirus.html|access-date=2020-08-09|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website. It restored the data a day later.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ornstein|first=Charles|title=Out of View: After Public Outcry, CDC Adds Hospital Data Back to Its Website – for Now|url=https://www.propublica.org/article/out-of-view-after-public-outcry-cdc-adds-hospital-data-back-to-its-website-for-now?token=TuMy8gExpvZxdxiWRs7mTz21zSyVml5E|access-date=2020-08-09|website=ProPublica|date=July 16, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Who took down the CDC's coronavirus data? The agency itself.|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/07/16/who-took-down-the-cdcs-coronavirus-data-the-agency-itself-367018|access-date=2020-08-09|website=[[Politico]]|date=July 16, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=2020-07-16|title=COVID-19 Data Dashboard – Patient Impact & Hospital Capacity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/covid19/report-patient-impact.html|access-date=2020-08-09|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref>
 
In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing. The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wu|first=Katherine J.|date=2020-08-25|title=C.D.C. Now Says People Without Covid-19 Symptoms Do Not Need Testing|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/25/health/covid-19-testing-cdc.html|access-date=2020-09-01|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The guidelines were crafted by the [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] without the sign-off of [[Anthony Fauci]] of the NIH.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sheridan|first=Kate|date=2020-08-27|title=CDC director attempts to clarify controversial Covid-19 testing guidelines|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/08/27/redfield-clarify-controversial-testing-guidelines/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=STAT|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Branswell|first=Helen |first2=Kate |last2=Sheridan |date=2020-08-27|title=New Covid-19 testing guidelines, crafted at the White House, alarm public health experts|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/08/26/new-covid19-testing-guidelines-crafted-at-white-house-alarm-public-health-experts/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=STAT|language=en-US}}</ref> Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard. Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for "the importance of reopening schools" was also crafted outside the CDC.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-09-18|title=Covid-19 Live Updates: C.D.C. Website's Controversial Testing Guideline Was Not Written by C.D.C. Scientists|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/17/world/covid-19-coronavirus.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-09-18|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency.<ref name="nytimes.com">Weiland, Noah, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/16/us/politics/cdc-trump.html 'Like a Hand Grasping': Trump Appointees Describe the Crushing of the C.D.C.]", ''The New York Times'', December 16, 2020.</ref> The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-09-19|title=After Criticism, C.D.C. Reverses Covid-19 Guidelines on Testing People Who Were Exposed|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/18/world/covid-coronavirus.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-09-19|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 
In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kaplan|first=Sheila|date=2020-10-10|title=Covid-19 Live Updates: White House Blocked C.D.C. From Mandating Masks on Public Transit|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2020/10/09/world/covid-coronavirus |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-10-10|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 
In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports.<ref>{{Cite news|first1=Rebecca |last1=Ballhaus |first2=Stephanie |last2=Armour |first3=Betsy |last3=McKay |date=2020-10-15|title=A Demoralized CDC Grapples With White House Meddling and Its Own Mistakes|language=en-US|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-demoralized-cdc-grapples-with-white-house-meddling-and-its-own-mistakes-11602776561 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-10-15|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
 
In the lead up to 2020 [[Thanksgiving]], the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, "It's not a requirement. It's a recommendation for the American public to consider." The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-20|title=Coronavirus: CDC urges Americans not to travel for Thanksgiving|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-55011155|access-date=2020-11-21}}</ref>
 
The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to "ben[d] to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public [...] cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured" as of 2022.<ref name=nytreorg/>
 
In May 2021, following criticism by scientists, the CDC updated its COVID-19 guidance to acknowledge airborne transmission of COVID-19, after having previously claimed that the majority of infections occurred via "close contact, not airborne transmission".<ref>{{Cite web |last=May |first=Brandon |date=2021-05-10 |title=After Months of Prodding, CDC Updates Guidance on COVID-19 Airborne Transmission |url=https://www.biospace.com/article/cdc-s-updated-guidance-includes-statement-on-covid-19-airborne-transmission-/ |access-date=2022-08-21 |website=BioSpace |language=en-US}}</ref>
 
In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of [[Delta Air Lines]], CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with COVID-19 from 10 days to five.<ref>{{Cite news |work=NPR |url= https://www.npr.org/2021/12/29/1068731487/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-to-cut-quarantine |title= Delta's CEO asked the CDC for a 5-day isolation. Some flight attendants feel at risk |first1=Deepa |last1=Shivaram |date=December 29, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204135120/https://www.npr.org/2021/12/29/1068731487/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-to-cut-quarantine |archive-date= Feb 4, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepardson |first=David |date=December 21, 2021 |title=Delta CEO asks CDC to cut quarantine time for breakthrough COVID cases |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-cut-quarantine-time-breakthrough-covid-cases-2021-12-21/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714122900/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/delta-ceo-asks-cdc-cut-quarantine-time-breakthrough-covid-cases-2021-12-21/ |archive-date=Jul 14, 2023 |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=US shortens Covid-19 isolation window amid airline push  |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/metals-platform/newsandanalysis/article/2287248-US-shortens-Covid-19-isolation-window-amid-airline-push |access-date=2023-11-01 |website=Argus Metals |date=28 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101203244/https://www.argusmedia.com/metals-platform/newsandanalysis/article/2287248-US-shortens-Covid-19-isolation-window-amid-airline-push  |archive-date=2023-11-01 }}</ref>
 
Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mandavilli |first=Apoorva |date=2022-02-20 |title=The C.D.C. Isn't Publishing Large Portions of the Covid Data It Collects |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/20/health/covid-cdc-data.html |access-date=2022-08-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 
On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |date=June 11, 2022 |title=US will end Covid-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the country |newspaper=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/06/10/politics/us-to-end-pre-departure-testing-requirement/index.html |last1=Collins |first1=Kaitlan }}</ref>
 
In January 2022, it was revealed that the CDC had communicated with moderators at [[Facebook]] and [[Instagram]] over COVID-19 information and discussion on the platforms, including information that the CDC considered false or misleading and that might influence people not to get the COVID-19 vaccines.<ref>Flood, Brian, "[https://www.foxnews.com/media/emails-show-cdc-significant-influence-covid-policies-facebook-worked-silence-vaccine-dissent Emails show CDC had 'significant influence' on COVID policies at Facebook, worked to 'silence' vaccine dissent]", [[Fox News]], 19 January 2022</ref>
 
====Controversy over the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report====
 
During the pandemic, the CDC [[Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report]] (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic.<ref name = Diamond>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/09/11/exclusive-trump-officials-interfered-with-cdc-reports-on-covid-19-412809|title=Trump officials interfered with CDC reports on Covid-19|last=Diamond|first=Dan|date=September 11, 2020|work=[[Politico]]|access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>
 
Starting in June 2020, [[Michael Caputo]], the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor [[Paul Elias Alexander|Paul Alexander]] tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance.<ref name="Diamond" /> Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out.<ref name="Sun">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/09/12/trump-control-over-cdc-reports/ |url-access=subscription |title=Trump officials seek greater control over CDC reports on coronavirus|last=Sun|first=Lena H.|date=September 12, 2020|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>
 
Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that [[hydroxychloroquine]] had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite.<ref name="Diamond" /> In emails Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to "hurt the president" and writing "hit pieces on the administration".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/12/us/politics/trump-coronavirus-politics-cdc.html |last=Weiland |first=Noah |last2=Stolberg |first2=Sheryl Gay |last3=Goodnough |first3=Abby |url-access=subscription |title=Political Appointees Meddled in C.D.C.'s 'Holiest of the Holy' Health Reports|date=September 12, 2020|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref>
 
In October 2020, emails obtained by ''Politico'' showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Diamond |first1=Dan |title=Trump official pressured CDC to change report on Covid and kids |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/10/05/trump-cdc-coronavirus-report-change-425538 |website=[[Politico]]|date=October 5, 2020 |access-date=October 7, 2020}}</ref>
 
==== Eroding trust in the CDC as a result of COVID-19 controversies ====
A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Monroe|first=Madeline|date=2020-09-15|title=Polls show trust in scientific, political institutions eroding|url=https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/516412-polls-show-trust-in-scientific-political-institutions-eroding/|access-date=2020-11-15|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|language=en}}</ref> By January 2022, according to an [[NBC News]] poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hamblin |first=James |date=2022-03-12 |title=Can Public Health Be Saved? |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/12/opinion/public-health-trust.html |access-date=2022-04-01 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> The diminishing level of trust in the CDC and the information releases also incited "[[vaccine hesitancy]]" with the result that "just 53 percent of Americans said they would be somewhat or extremely likely to get a vaccine."<ref name=":2" />
 
In September 2020, amid the accusations and the faltering image of the CDC, the agency's leadership was called into question. Former acting director at the CDC, [[Richard E. Besser|Richard Besser]], said of Redfield that "I find it concerning that the CDC director has not been outspoken when there have been instances of clear political interference in the interpretation of science."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2020-09-16|title=CDC director is seen as allowing agency to buckle to political influence|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/09/16/as-controversies-swirl-cdc-director-is-seen-as-allowing-agency-to-buckle-to-political-influence/|access-date=2020-11-15|website=STAT|language=en-US}}</ref> In addition, [[Mark L. Rosenberg|Mark Rosenberg]], the first director of CDC's [[National Center for Injury Prevention and Control]], also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science.<ref name=":3" />
 
Historically, the CDC has not been a political agency; however, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and specifically the Trump administration's handling of the pandemic, resulted in a "dangerous shift" according to a previous CDC director and others. Four previous directors claim that the agency's voice was "muted for political reasons."<ref>{{cite web |title=CDC's politicization 'extremely dangerous' for Americans, says its former head |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/cdcs-politicization-extremely-dangerous-for-americans-says-its-former-head |website=[[PBS NewsHour]] |date=July 14, 2020 |access-date=May 7, 2021}}</ref> Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance<ref>{{cite web |title=New CDC guidance won't end NY mask mandate yet, Cuomo says |url=https://www.lohud.com/story/news/coronavirus/2021/05/13/cdc-guidance-mask-mandate-new-york-cuomo/5081053001/ |website=Iohud |access-date=May 15, 2021}}</ref> and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding".<ref>{{cite web |title='CDC's credibility is eroding' amid conflicting mask guidance, ex-Obama official says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/11/cdcs-credibility-is-eroding-amid-conflicting-mask-guidance-ex-obama-official-says.html |website=[[CNBC]]|date=May 12, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021}}</ref>
 
In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|mask-wearing guidance]], and the state of the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chow|first=Denise|date=2021-04-06|title=CDC's messaging problem highlights pandemic's uncertain future|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/cdcs-messaging-problem-highlights-pandemics-uncertain-future-rcna602|access-date=2021-04-17|website=[[NBC News]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Stanley-Becker |first1=Isaac |last2=Guarino |first2=Ben |last3=Stead Sellers |first3=Frances |last4=Eunjung Cha |first4=Ariana |last5=Sun |first5=Lena H. |title=CDC's mask guidance spurs confusion and criticism, as well as celebration |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/05/14/cdc-mask-update-decision-confusion/ |access-date=May 16, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=May 15, 2021}}</ref>
 
== Publications ==
* CDC publications<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/Publications|title= Publications|publisher=CDC|access-date=2012-10-10}}</ref>
* State of CDC report<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/about/stateofcdc/index.htm|title=CDC Publication Archives |publisher=CDC|access-date=2012-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304213254/http://www.cdc.gov/about/stateofcdc/index.htm|archive-date=March 4, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* CDC Programs in Brief<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/programs|title=Programs in Brief: Home Page|publisher=CDC|access-date=2006-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718013207/http://www.cdc.gov/programs|archive-date=July 18, 2006}}</ref>
* ''[[Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr|title=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|publisher=CDC|access-date=2012-10-10}}</ref>
* ''[[Emerging Infectious Diseases]]'' (monthly journal)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/pages/about.htm|title=About the Emerging Infectious Diseases journal |publisher=CDC|access-date=2012-10-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105064444/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/pages/about.htm |archive-date= Nov 5, 2012 }}</ref>
* ''[[Preventing Chronic Disease]]''
* [[Vital statistics (government records)|Vital statistics]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss.htm|title=CDC/National Center for Health Statistics|access-date=October 14, 2014}}</ref>
 
==Popular culture==
 
===Zombie Apocalypse campaign===
On May 16, 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's blog [[Preparedness 101: Zombie Apocalypse|published an article instructing the public on]] what to do to prepare for a [[Zombie (fictional)|zombie]] invasion. While the article did not claim that such a scenario was possible, it did use the popular culture appeal as a means of urging citizens to prepare for all potential hazards, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods.<ref>{{cite web|last=Khan|first=Ali S.|series=CDC Zombie Warning|url=http://blogs.cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2011/05/preparedness-101-zombie-apocalypse|title=Preparedness 101: Zombie Apocalypse|work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=May 16, 2011|access-date=March 8, 2014|archive-date=March 11, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311064319/http://blogs.cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2011/05/preparedness-101-zombie-apocalypse/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
According to David Daigle, the associate director for Communications, Public Health Preparedness and Response, the idea arose when his team was discussing their upcoming hurricane-information campaign and Daigle mused that "we say pretty much the same things every year, in the same way, and I just wonder how many people are paying attention." A social-media employee mentioned that the subject of zombies had come up a lot on [[Twitter]] when she had been tweeting about the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster]] and [[radiation]]. The team realized that a campaign like this would most likely reach a different audience from the one that normally pays attention to hurricane-preparedness warnings and went to work on the zombie campaign, launching it right before hurricane season began. "The whole idea was, if you're prepared for a zombie apocalypse, you're prepared for pretty much anything," said Daigle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skepticality.com/centers-zombie-control-prevention|title=Centers for Zombie Control and Prevention|work=Skepticality Podcast|date=October 25, 2011|access-date=March 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225000204/http://www.skepticality.com/centers-zombie-control-prevention/|archive-date=December 25, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
Once the blog article was posted, the CDC announced an open contest for [[YouTube]] submissions of the most creative and effective videos covering preparedness for a [[zombie apocalypse]] (or apocalypse of any kind), to be judged by the "CDC Zombie Task Force". Submissions were open until October 11, 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prepare.challenge.gov|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120713171317/http://prepare.challenge.gov/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-07-13|title=Are You Prepared? Video Contest|publisher=Prepare.challenge.gov|access-date=2012-04-16}}</ref> They also released a zombie-themed graphic novella available on their website.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/phpr/zombies_novella.htm |title=Zombie Novella&#124;Zombie Preparedness&#124;Are We Prepared? |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=2015-04-10 |access-date=2017-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729111741/https://www.cdc.gov/phpr/zombies_novella.htm |archive-date=July 29, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zombie-themed educational materials for teachers are available on the site.<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-04-10|title=Zombie Preparedness|url=https://www.cdc.gov/phpr/zombies.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809004103/https://www.cdc.gov/cpr/zombie/index.htm?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcpr%2Fzombies.htm|archive-date=2021-08-09|access-date=2021-12-22|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref>
 
==See also==
* [[Gun violence in the United States]]
* [[Haddon Matrix]]
* [[List of national public health agencies]]
* [[Safe Kids Worldwide]]
=== CDC Departments ===
* [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|ATSDR]] – CDC department
* [[NIOSH]] – CDC department
** [[N95 respirator]] – regulated by NIOSH
** [[Division of Industrial Hygiene]] – predecessor to NIOSH
=== Other [[United States federal executive departments|US Executive Departments]] ===
* [[Mine Safety and Health Administration|MSHA]] – co-regulator of respirators [[N95 respirator#History|prior to 1998]]
** [[United States Bureau of Mines|Bureau of Mines]] – predecessor to MSHA
* [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]
* [[OSHA]]
 
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
 
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{CDC}}
{{refend}}
 
== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |author = Editorial |title = Reviving the US CDC |journal = [[The Lancet]] |volume = 395 |issue = 10236 |page = 1521 |date = May 16, 2020 |doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31140-5 |pmid = 32416772 |pmc = 7255307 }}
 
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikinewscat}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Scholia|organization}}
* {{Official website|https://www.cdc.gov}}
* [https://www.federalregister.gov/agencies/centers-for-disease-control-and-prevention CDC] in the ''[[Federal Register]]''
* [https://www.usaspending.gov/federal_account/075-0943 CDC-Wide Activities and Program Support] account on [[USAspending.gov]]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/media/ CDC Online Newsroom]
* [https://phil.cdc.gov/ CDC Public Health Image Library]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/gcc/ CDC Global Communications Center]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080703172216/http://www.labdesignnews.com/LaboratoryDesign/LD0605feat_3.asp CDC Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory – Atlanta, Georgia] (archived 3 July 2008)
* [https://wonder.cdc.gov/ CDC WONDER online databases].
* [https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/83615/cdc_83615_DS1.pdf Vaccine Safety Monitoring Systems and Methods (CDC) a slide deck presented at October 2019 Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) meeting]
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Revision as of 11:10, 19 November 2024

Stored: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Type: Federal agency
Parent organization: Department of Health and Human Services
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Wikipedia: Centers for Disease Control and PreventionWikipedia Logo.png
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
This map created from a Cargo query (Purge)
Mission
The mission of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is to protect America from health, safety, and security threats, both foreign and in the U.S.
  • Detect and respond to new and emerging health threats.
  • Tackle the biggest health problems causing death and disability for Americans.
  • Put science and advanced technology into action to prevent disease

.

The CDC works towards these goals by conducting health promotion, prevention of disease, injury, and disability through activities

Services
Regulations
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