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The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation and domestic policymaking. As part of the system of [[Separation of powers under the United States Constitution|separation of powers]], [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 7: Bills|Article I, Section{{nbsp}}7]] of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or [[Veto power in the United States|veto]] federal legislation. Since modern presidents are typically viewed as leaders of their political parties, major policymaking is significantly shaped by the outcome of presidential elections, with presidents taking an active role in promoting their policy priorities to members of Congress who are often electorally dependent on the president.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfiffner |first=J. P. |year=1988 |title=The President's Legislative Agenda |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=499 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1177/0002716288499001002 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716288499001002 |s2cid=143985489 }}</ref> In recent decades, presidents have also made increasing use of [[executive order]]s, agency regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic policy. | The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation and domestic policymaking. As part of the system of [[Separation of powers under the United States Constitution|separation of powers]], [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 7: Bills|Article I, Section{{nbsp}}7]] of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or [[Veto power in the United States|veto]] federal legislation. Since modern presidents are typically viewed as leaders of their political parties, major policymaking is significantly shaped by the outcome of presidential elections, with presidents taking an active role in promoting their policy priorities to members of Congress who are often electorally dependent on the president.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfiffner |first=J. P. |year=1988 |title=The President's Legislative Agenda |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=499 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1177/0002716288499001002 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716288499001002 |s2cid=143985489 }}</ref> In recent decades, presidents have also made increasing use of [[executive order]]s, agency regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic policy. | ||
The president is [[Indirect election|elected indirectly]] through the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] to a four-year term, along with the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Under the [[Twenty-second Amendment]], ratified in 1951, no person who has been elected to two presidential terms may be elected to a third. In addition, nine vice presidents have become president by virtue of a [[List of presidents of the United States who died in office|president's intra-term death]] or [[Nixon resignation|resignation]].{{efn-ua|The nine vice presidents who succeeded to the presidency upon their predecessor's death or resignation and served for the remainder of his term are: [[John Tyler]] (1841); [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850); [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865); [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881); | The president is [[Indirect election|elected indirectly]] through the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] to a four-year term, along with the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Under the [[Twenty-second Amendment]], ratified in 1951, no person who has been elected to two presidential terms may be elected to a third. In addition, nine vice presidents have become president by virtue of a [[List of presidents of the United States who died in office|president's intra-term death]] or [[Nixon resignation|resignation]].{{efn-ua|The nine vice presidents who succeeded to the presidency upon their predecessor's death or resignation and served for the remainder of his term are: [[John Tyler]] (1841); [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850); [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865); [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881); Theodore Roosevelt (1901); [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923); Harry S. Truman (1945); Lyndon B. Johnson (1963); and [[Gerald Ford]] (1974).}} In all, [[List of presidents of the United States|45 individuals]] have served 46 presidencies spanning 58 four-year terms.{{efn-ua|[[Grover Cleveland]] served two non-consecutive terms, so he is counted twice, as both the 22nd and 24th president.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/grover-cleveland-24/ |title=Grover Cleveland—24 |publisher=White House}}.</ref>}} [[Joe Biden]] is the 46th and current president, having [[Inauguration of Joe Biden|assumed office]] on January 20, 2021. [[President-elect of the United States|President-elect]] [[Donald Trump]] is scheduled to be [[Second inauguration of Donald Trump|inaugurated as]] the 47th president on January 20, 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bowden |first=George |date=2024-11-06 |title=When does Trump become US president again? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cde7ng85jwgo |access-date=2024-11-06 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Zeke |last2=Price |first2=Michelle L. |last3=Weissert |first3=Will |last4=Colvin |first4=Jill |date=2024-11-05 |title=Trump wins the White House in political comeback rooted in appeals to frustrated voters |url=https://apnews.com/article/election-day-trump-harris-white-house-83c8e246ab97f5b97be45cdc156af4e2 |access-date=2024-11-06 |publisher=Associated Press }}</ref> | ||
== History and development == | == History and development == | ||
=== Origins === | === Origins === | ||
During the | During the American Revolutionary War, the [[Thirteen Colonies]], represented by the [[Second Continental Congress]] in Philadelphia, declared themselves to be independent [[sovereign state]]s and no longer under [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] rule. The affirmation was made in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], which was written predominantly by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and adopted unanimously on July 4, 1776, by the Second Continental Congress.<ref name="Milkis">{{Cite book |last1=Milkis |first1=Sidney M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KkUvAAAAYAAJ |title=The American Presidency: Origins and Development |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael |publisher=CQ Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-87289-336-8 |edition=5th |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=1–25}}</ref> Recognizing the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]],<ref name="Kelly">{{Cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Alfred H. |title=The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development |last2=Harbison |first2=Winfred A. |last3=Belz |first3=Herman |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-393-96056-3 |edition=7th |volume=I |location=New York |pages=76–81}}</ref> the Continental Congress simultaneously began the process of drafting a constitution that would bind the [[U.S. state|states]] together. There were long debates on a number of issues, including representation and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central government.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1776–1783/articles |title=Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781 |publisher=Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 20, 2019 }}{{dead link|date=August 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Congress finished work on the [[Articles of Confederation]] to establish a [[Perpetual Union|perpetual union]] between the states in November 1777 and sent it to the states for [[ratification]].<ref name=Milkis /> | ||
Under the Articles, which [[Coming into force|took effect]] on March 1, 1781, the [[Congress of the Confederation]] was a central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens.<ref name=Kelly /> This institutional design reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system of [[The Crown|Crown]] and [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] ought to have functioned with respect to the royal [[dominion]]: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire.<ref name=Kelly /> The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly [[royal prerogative]]s (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of Congress elected a [[President of the Continental Congress|president of the United States in Congress Assembled]] to preside over its deliberation as a neutral [[discussion moderator]]. Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later office of president of the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much influence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmeEcpEvlsC |title=Founding the American Presidency |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1999 |isbn=0-8476-9499-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=1}}</ref> | Under the Articles, which [[Coming into force|took effect]] on March 1, 1781, the [[Congress of the Confederation]] was a central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens.<ref name=Kelly /> This institutional design reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system of [[The Crown|Crown]] and [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] ought to have functioned with respect to the royal [[dominion]]: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire.<ref name=Kelly /> The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly [[royal prerogative]]s (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of Congress elected a [[President of the Continental Congress|president of the United States in Congress Assembled]] to preside over its deliberation as a neutral [[discussion moderator]]. Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later office of president of the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much influence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmeEcpEvlsC |title=Founding the American Presidency |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1999 |isbn=0-8476-9499-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=1}}</ref> | ||
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In 1783, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs.<ref name=Milkis /> By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their [[hard currency]] pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] commerce preyed upon by [[North Africa]]n [[Barbary pirates|pirates]], and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest.<ref name=Milkis /> Civil and political unrest loomed. Events such as the [[Newburgh Conspiracy]] and [[Shays' Rebellion]] demonstrated that the Articles of Confederation were not working. | In 1783, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs.<ref name=Milkis /> By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their [[hard currency]] pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] commerce preyed upon by [[North Africa]]n [[Barbary pirates|pirates]], and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest.<ref name=Milkis /> Civil and political unrest loomed. Events such as the [[Newburgh Conspiracy]] and [[Shays' Rebellion]] demonstrated that the Articles of Confederation were not working. | ||
Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between [[Virginia]] and Maryland at the [[Mount Vernon Conference]] in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in [[Annapolis, Maryland]], with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|convention]] failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in | Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between [[Virginia]] and Maryland at the [[Mount Vernon Conference]] in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in [[Annapolis, Maryland]], with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|convention]] failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until [[James Madison]] and [[Edmund Randolph]] succeeded in securing [[George Washington]]'s attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.<ref name=Milkis /><ref name="Beeman">{{Cite book |last=Beeman |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem |title=Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution |publisher=Random House |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8129-7684-7 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> | ||
When the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance ([[Rhode Island]] did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature.<ref name=Milkis /> [[New York (state)|New York]] offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter.<ref name=Milkis /> It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] emerged. | When the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance ([[Rhode Island]] did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature.<ref name=Milkis /> [[New York (state)|New York]] offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter.<ref name=Milkis /> It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] emerged. | ||
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The election of [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1828 was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Kenneth |title=The Most Consequential Elections in History: Andrew Jackson and the Election of 1828 |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/08/20/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history-andrew-jackson-and-the-election-of-1828 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> [[Jacksonian democracy]] sought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor, [[Martin Van Buren]], became unpopular after the [[Panic of 1837]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bomboy |first1=Scott |title=Martin Van Buren's legacy: Expert politician, mediocre president |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/martin-van-burens-legacy-was-more-than-just-muttonchops-2/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=December 5, 2017}}</ref> and the death of [[William Henry Harrison]] and subsequent poor relations between [[John Tyler]] and Congress led to further weakening of the office.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freehling |first1=William |title=John Tyler: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/impact-and-legacy |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Including Van Buren, in the 24 years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Robert |title=Seven Presidents Served in the 20 Years Before the Civil War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidents-before-the-civil-war-1773447 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=ThoughtCo |date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> The Senate played an important role during this period, with the [[Great Triumvirate]] of [[Henry Clay]], [[Daniel Webster]], and [[John C. Calhoun]] playing key roles in shaping national policy in the 1830s and 1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in the 1850s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heidler |first1=David |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne |title=The Great Triumvirate |url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/the-great-triumvirate.html |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Winters |first1=Michael Sean |title='Do not trust in princes': the limits of politics |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/do-not-trust-princes-limits-politics |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Catholic Reporter |date=August 4, 2017}}</ref> | The election of [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1828 was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Kenneth |title=The Most Consequential Elections in History: Andrew Jackson and the Election of 1828 |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/08/20/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history-andrew-jackson-and-the-election-of-1828 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> [[Jacksonian democracy]] sought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor, [[Martin Van Buren]], became unpopular after the [[Panic of 1837]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bomboy |first1=Scott |title=Martin Van Buren's legacy: Expert politician, mediocre president |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/martin-van-burens-legacy-was-more-than-just-muttonchops-2/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=December 5, 2017}}</ref> and the death of [[William Henry Harrison]] and subsequent poor relations between [[John Tyler]] and Congress led to further weakening of the office.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freehling |first1=William |title=John Tyler: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/impact-and-legacy |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Including Van Buren, in the 24 years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Robert |title=Seven Presidents Served in the 20 Years Before the Civil War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidents-before-the-civil-war-1773447 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=ThoughtCo |date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> The Senate played an important role during this period, with the [[Great Triumvirate]] of [[Henry Clay]], [[Daniel Webster]], and [[John C. Calhoun]] playing key roles in shaping national policy in the 1830s and 1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in the 1850s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heidler |first1=David |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne |title=The Great Triumvirate |url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/the-great-triumvirate.html |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Winters |first1=Michael Sean |title='Do not trust in princes': the limits of politics |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/do-not-trust-princes-limits-politics |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Catholic Reporter |date=August 4, 2017}}</ref> | ||
Abraham Lincoln's leadership during the Civil War has led historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest presidents.{{efn-ua|Nearly all scholars rank Lincoln among the nation's top three presidents, with many placing him first. See [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States]] for a collection of survey results.}} The circumstances of the war and Republican domination of Congress made the office very powerful,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Frank |title=Lincoln's War Powers: Part Constitution, Part Trust |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/lincolns_war_powers_part_constitution_part_trust |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=American Bar Association |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Jennifer |title=Was Lincoln a Tyrant? |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/was-lincoln-a-tyrant/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=New York Times Opinionator |date=March 25, 2013}}</ref> and Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's assassination, his successor [[Andrew Johnson]] lost all political support<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varon |first1=Elizabeth |title=Andrew Johnson: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/campaigns-and-elections |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> and was nearly removed from office,<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC Staff |title=The man whose impeachment vote saved Andrew Johnson |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-man-whose-impeachment-vote-saved-andrew-johnson |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> with Congress remaining powerful during the two-term presidency of Civil War general [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. After the end of [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]], [[Grover Cleveland]] would eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war, running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900, [[William McKinley]] became the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872. | |||
After McKinley's [[Assassination of William McKinley|assassination]] by [[Leon Czolgosz]] in 1901, | After McKinley's [[Assassination of William McKinley|assassination]] by [[Leon Czolgosz]] in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became a dominant figure in American politics.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boissoneault |first1=Lorraine |title=The Debate Over Executive Orders Began With Teddy Roosevelt's Mad Passion for Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-theodore-roosevelts-executive-orders-reshaped-countryand-presidency-180962908/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine (website) |date=April 17, 2017}}</ref> Historians believe Roosevelt permanently changed the political system by strengthening the presidency,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Posner |first1=Eric |title=The inevitability of the imperial presidency |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/political-bookworm/post/the-inevitability-of-the-imperial-presidency/2011/04/22/AFTRBoPE_blog.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 22, 2011}}</ref> with some key accomplishments including breaking up trusts, conservationism, labor reforms, making personal character as important as the issues, and hand-picking his successor, [[William Howard Taft]]. The following decade, [[Woodrow Wilson]] led the nation to victory during World War I, although Wilson's proposal for the [[League of Nations]] was rejected by the Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Senate rejects League of Nations, Nov. 19, 2019 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/senate-rejects-league-of-nations-nov-19-1919-113006 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=November 19, 2014}}</ref> [[Warren Harding]], while popular in office, would see his legacy tarnished by scandals, especially [[Teapot Dome]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robenalt |first1=James |title=If we weren't so obsessed with Warren G. Harding's sex life, we'd realize he was a pretty good president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/13/if-we-werent-so-obsessed-with-warren-g-hardings-sex-life-wed-realize-he-was-a-pretty-good-president/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> and [[Herbert Hoover]] quickly became very unpopular after failing to alleviate the [[Great Depression]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Richard Norton |last2=Walch |first2=Timothy |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |journal=Prologue Magazine |date=Summer 2004 |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |publisher=National Archives}}</ref> | ||
=== Imperial presidency === | === Imperial presidency === | ||
{{Main|Imperial presidency}} | {{Main|Imperial presidency}} | ||
[[File:Franklin D Roosevelt - radio broadcast.jpg|thumb|President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] delivers a [[Fireside chats|radio address]] in 1933]] | [[File:Franklin D Roosevelt - radio broadcast.jpg|thumb|President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] delivers a [[Fireside chats|radio address]] in 1933]] | ||
The ascendancy of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in 1933 led further toward what historians now describe as the [[Imperial Presidency|Imperial presidency]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialpresiden00schl|title=The Imperial Presidency|last=Schlesinger| first=Arthur M. Jr. |date=1973|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|others=Frank and Virginia Williams Collection of Lincolniana (Mississippi State University. Libraries)|isbn=0-395-17713-8|location=Boston|pages=x|oclc=704887|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|url-access=registration}}</ref> Backed by enormous Democratic majorities in Congress and public support for major change, Roosevelt's [[New Deal]] dramatically increased the size and scope of the federal government, including more executive agencies.<ref name=JohnYooFDR>{{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=John |title=Franklin Roosevelt and Presidential Power |journal=Chapman Law Review |date=February 14, 2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=205 |ssrn=3123894 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3123894}}</ref>{{rp|211–12}} The traditionally small presidential staff was greatly expanded, with the [[Executive Office of the President]] being created in 1939, none of whom require Senate confirmation.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|229–231}} Roosevelt's unprecedented re-election to a third and fourth term, the victory of the United States in [[World War II]], and the nation's growing economy all helped established the office as a position of global leadership.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|269}} His successors, [[Harry Truman]] and | The ascendancy of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in 1933 led further toward what historians now describe as the [[Imperial Presidency|Imperial presidency]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialpresiden00schl|title=The Imperial Presidency|last=Schlesinger| first=Arthur M. Jr. |date=1973|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|others=Frank and Virginia Williams Collection of Lincolniana (Mississippi State University. Libraries)|isbn=0-395-17713-8|location=Boston|pages=x|oclc=704887|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|url-access=registration}}</ref> Backed by enormous Democratic majorities in Congress and public support for major change, Roosevelt's [[New Deal]] dramatically increased the size and scope of the federal government, including more executive agencies.<ref name=JohnYooFDR>{{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=John |title=Franklin Roosevelt and Presidential Power |journal=Chapman Law Review |date=February 14, 2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=205 |ssrn=3123894 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3123894}}</ref>{{rp|211–12}} The traditionally small presidential staff was greatly expanded, with the [[Executive Office of the President]] being created in 1939, none of whom require Senate confirmation.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|229–231}} Roosevelt's unprecedented re-election to a third and fourth term, the victory of the United States in [[World War II]], and the nation's growing economy all helped established the office as a position of global leadership.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|269}} His successors, [[Harry Truman]] and Dwight D. Eisenhower, each served two terms as the [[Cold War]] led the presidency to be viewed as the "[[leader of the free world]]",<ref>Tierney, Dominic (January 24, 2017). [https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/01/trump-free-world-leader/514232/ "What Does It Mean That Trump Is 'Leader of the Free World'?"]. ''[[The Atlantic]]''.</ref> while [[John F. Kennedy]] was a youthful and popular leader who benefited from the rise of television in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Eschner |first1=Kat |title=A Year Before His Presidential Debate, JFK Foresaw How TV Would Change Politics |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/what-jfk-had-say-about-tv-politics-180967172/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |date=November 14, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Simon |first1=Ron |title=See How JFK Created a Presidency for the Television Age |url=https://time.com/4795637/jfk-television/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=May 29, 2017}}</ref> | ||
After | After Lyndon B. Johnson lost popular support due to the Vietnam War and [[Richard Nixon]]'s presidency collapsed in the [[Watergate scandal]], Congress enacted a series of reforms intended to reassert itself.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wallach |first1=Philip |title=When Congress won the American people's respect: Watergate |url=https://www.legbranch.org/2018-4-25-when-congress-won-the-american-peoples-respect-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=LegBranch.org |date=April 26, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Sam |last2=Tausanovitch |first2=Alex |title=Lessons From Watergate |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2018/07/30/454058/lessons-from-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Center for American Progress |date=July 30, 2018}}</ref> These included the [[War Powers Resolution]], enacted over Nixon's veto in 1973,<ref>{{USStat|87|555}}, 559–560.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Madden |first1=Richard |title=House and Senate Override Veto by Nixon on Curb of War Powers; Backers of Bill Win 3-Year Fight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/08/archives/house-and-senate-override-veto-by-nixon-on-curb-of-war-powers.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=November 8, 1973}}</ref> and the [[Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974]] that sought to strengthen congressional fiscal powers.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Budget and Impoundment Control Act becomes law, July 12, 1974 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/07/12/budget-and-impoundment-control-act-becomes-law-july-12-1974-240372 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=July 12, 2017}}</ref> By 1976, [[Gerald Ford]] conceded that "the historic pendulum" had swung toward Congress, raising the possibility of a "disruptive" erosion of his ability to govern.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shabecoff |first1=Philip |title=Presidency Is Found Weaker Under Ford |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/28/archives/presidency-is-found-weaker-under-ford-curbs-on-exerting-power-seen.html |access-date=September 9, 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=March 28, 1976}}</ref> Ford failed to win election to a full term and his successor, [[Jimmy Carter]], failed to win re-election. [[Ronald Reagan]], who had been an actor before beginning his political career, used his talent as a communicator to help reshape the American agenda away from New Deal policies toward more conservative ideology.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Lee |title=What Made Reagan a Truly Great Communicator |url=https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |date=February 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brands |first1=H. W. |title=What Reagan Learned from FDR |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/159389 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=History News Network}}</ref> | ||
With the Cold War ending and the United States becoming the world's undisputed leading power,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Theodore |title=America's First Post-Cold War President |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=Fall 1992 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.2307/20045307 |jstor=20045307 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1992-09-01/americas-first-post-cold-war-president}}</ref> [[Bill Clinton]], | With the Cold War ending and the United States becoming the world's undisputed leading power,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Theodore |title=America's First Post-Cold War President |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=Fall 1992 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.2307/20045307 |jstor=20045307 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1992-09-01/americas-first-post-cold-war-president}}</ref> [[Bill Clinton]], George W. Bush, and [[Barack Obama]] each served two terms as president. Meanwhile, Congress and the nation gradually became more politically polarized, especially following the [[1994 United States elections|1994 mid-term elections]] that saw Republicans control the House for the first time in 40 years, and the rise of routine [[Filibuster in the United States Senate|filibusters]] in the Senate in recent decades.<ref>Barber, Michael; McCarty, Nolan (2013), [https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf Causes and Consequences of Polarization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf |date=January 14, 2021 }}, American Political Science Association Task Force on Negotiating Agreement in Politics report, at 19–20, 37–38.</ref> Recent presidents have thus increasingly focused on [[executive order]]s, agency regulations, and judicial appointments to implement major policies, at the expense of legislation and congressional power.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudalevige |first1=Andrew |title=The Letter of the Law: Administrative Discretion and Obama's Domestic Unilateralism |journal=The Forum |date=April 1, 2014 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=29–59 |doi=10.1515/for-2014-0023 |s2cid=145237493 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Presidential elections in the 21st century have reflected this continuing polarization, with no candidate except Obama in 2008 winning by more than five percent of the popular vote and two, George W. Bush and [[Donald Trump]], winning in the Electoral College while losing the popular vote.{{efn-ua|See [[List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin]].}} | ||
=== Critics of presidency's evolution === | === Critics of presidency's evolution === | ||
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=== Signing and vetoing bills === | === Signing and vetoing bills === | ||
[[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|alt=|thumb|President | [[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|alt=|thumb|President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|1964 Civil Rights Act]] at the [[White House]] on July 2, 1964, as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and others look on.]] | ||
The president's most significant legislative power derives from the [[Presentment Clause]], which gives the president the power to veto any [[Bill (law)|bill]] passed by [[United States Congress|Congress]]. While Congress can override a presidential veto, it requires a [[Supermajority#Two-thirds vote|two-thirds vote]] of both houses, which is usually very difficult to achieve except for widely supported bipartisan legislation. The framers of the Constitution feared that Congress would seek to increase its power and enable a "tyranny of the majority", so giving the indirectly elected president a veto was viewed as an important check on the legislative power. While George Washington believed the veto should only be used in cases where a bill was unconstitutional, it is now routinely used in cases where presidents have policy disagreements with a bill. The veto – or threat of a veto – has thus evolved to make the modern presidency a central part of the American legislative process. | The president's most significant legislative power derives from the [[Presentment Clause]], which gives the president the power to veto any [[Bill (law)|bill]] passed by [[United States Congress|Congress]]. While Congress can override a presidential veto, it requires a [[Supermajority#Two-thirds vote|two-thirds vote]] of both houses, which is usually very difficult to achieve except for widely supported bipartisan legislation. The framers of the Constitution feared that Congress would seek to increase its power and enable a "tyranny of the majority", so giving the indirectly elected president a veto was viewed as an important check on the legislative power. While George Washington believed the veto should only be used in cases where a bill was unconstitutional, it is now routinely used in cases where presidents have policy disagreements with a bill. The veto – or threat of a veto – has thus evolved to make the modern presidency a central part of the American legislative process. | ||
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=== Convening and adjourning Congress === | === Convening and adjourning Congress === | ||
To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered by [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Calling Congress into the extraordinary session; adjourning Congress|Article II, Section{{nbsp}}3]] of the Constitution to call a [[special session]] of one or both houses of Congress. Since [[John Adams]] first did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27 occasions. | To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered by [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Calling Congress into the extraordinary session; adjourning Congress|Article II, Section{{nbsp}}3]] of the Constitution to call a [[special session]] of one or both houses of Congress. Since [[John Adams]] first did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27 occasions. Harry S. Truman was the most recent to do so in July 1948, known as the [[Turnip Day Session]]. In addition, prior to ratification of the [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twentieth Amendment]] in 1933, which brought forward the date on which Congress convenes from December to January, newly [[United States presidential inauguration|inaugurated]] presidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. In practice, the power has fallen into disuse in the modern era as Congress now formally remains in session year-round, convening pro forma sessions every three days even when ostensibly in recess. Correspondingly, the president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House and Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this power.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |title=Essays on Article II: Convening of Congress |last=Forte |first=David F. |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=Heritage Foundation |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Steinmetz |first=Katy |date=August 10, 2010 |title=Congressional Special Sessions |url=https://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,2009480,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> | ||
== Executive powers == | == Executive powers == | ||
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=== Commander-in-chief === | === Commander-in-chief === | ||
[[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb| | [[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb|Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president who successfully preserved the Union during the American Civil War, with [[Union Army]] general [[George B. McClellan]] and soldiers at [[Antietam National Battlefield|Antietam]] on October 3, 1862]] | ||
One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role as [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|commander-in-chief]] of the [[United States Armed Forces]]. The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/commander-in-chief-clause-ramsey-and-vladeck/clause/25 |title=Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause |last1=Ramsey |first1=Michael |last2=Vladeck |first2=Stephen |website=National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required) |publisher=National Constitution Center |access-date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; [[Alexander Hamilton]] explained this in [[Federalist No. 69]]:{{blockquote|The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.{{nbsp}}... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces{{nbsp}}... while that [the power] of the [[Monarchy of Great Britain|British king]] extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which{{nbsp}}... would appertain to the legislature.<ref>[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]]. [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa69.htm ''The Federalist'' #69] (reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> [Emphasis in the original.]|sign=|source=}} | One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role as [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|commander-in-chief]] of the [[United States Armed Forces]]. The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/commander-in-chief-clause-ramsey-and-vladeck/clause/25 |title=Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause |last1=Ramsey |first1=Michael |last2=Vladeck |first2=Stephen |website=National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required) |publisher=National Constitution Center |access-date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; [[Alexander Hamilton]] explained this in [[Federalist No. 69]]:{{blockquote|The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.{{nbsp}}... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces{{nbsp}}... while that [the power] of the [[Monarchy of Great Britain|British king]] extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which{{nbsp}}... would appertain to the legislature.<ref>[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]]. [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa69.htm ''The Federalist'' #69] (reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> [Emphasis in the original.]|sign=|source=}} | ||
In the modern era, pursuant to the [[War Powers Resolution]], Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual.<ref name="miller-center">{{Cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |title=The National War Powers Commission Report |last1=Christopher |first1=James A. |last2=Baker, III |date=July 8, 2008 |publisher=The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126165009/http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |archive-date=November 26, 2010 |access-date=December 15, 2010 |quote=No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions. }}</ref> Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war,<ref name="tws12novef">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101712/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |title=The Law: The President's War Powers |date=June 1, 1970 |magazine=Time |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tws8nov102">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.}}</ref> but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including | In the modern era, pursuant to the [[War Powers Resolution]], Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual.<ref name="miller-center">{{Cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |title=The National War Powers Commission Report |last1=Christopher |first1=James A. |last2=Baker, III |date=July 8, 2008 |publisher=The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126165009/http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |archive-date=November 26, 2010 |access-date=December 15, 2010 |quote=No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions. }}</ref> Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war,<ref name="tws12novef">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101712/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |title=The Law: The President's War Powers |date=June 1, 1970 |magazine=Time |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tws8nov102">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.}}</ref> but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into [[Panama]] in 1903,<ref name="tws12novef" /> the Korean War,<ref name="tws12novef" /> the Vietnam War,<ref name="tws12novef" /> and the invasions of [[Grenada]] in 1983<ref name="tws8nov101">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.}}</ref> and [[Panama]] in 1989.<ref name="tws8nov100">{{Cite news |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1220.html#article |title=U.S. troops move in Panama in effort to seize Noriega; gunfire is heard in capital |date=December 20, 1990 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration.}}</ref> | ||
The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly.<ref>Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review]</ref> George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established [[civilian control of the military|military subordination under civilian authority]]. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], a conflict in [[Western Pennsylvania]] involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian [[Joseph Ellis]], this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though [[James Madison]] briefly took control of artillery units in [[Burning of Washington|defense of Washington, D.C.]], during the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}}</ref> | The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly.<ref>Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review]</ref> George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established [[civilian control of the military|military subordination under civilian authority]]. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], a conflict in [[Western Pennsylvania]] involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian [[Joseph Ellis]], this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though [[James Madison]] briefly took control of artillery units in [[Burning of Washington|defense of Washington, D.C.]], during the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}}</ref> Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as [[Ulysses S. Grant]].<ref>James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief'' (2009)</ref> | ||
The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and is normally exercised through the [[United States Secretary of Defense|secretary of defense]]. The [[chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] and the [[Combatant Command]]s assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).<ref name="ucp">{{Cite news |url=http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |title=DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 |date=April 8, 2011 |work=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513070316/http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |archive-date=May 13, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{USC|10|164}}</ref><ref>[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022040/http://www.jcs.mil/page.aspx?id=2 About the Joint Chiefs of Staff]. Retrieved February 25, 2013.</ref> | The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and is normally exercised through the [[United States Secretary of Defense|secretary of defense]]. The [[chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] and the [[Combatant Command]]s assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).<ref name="ucp">{{Cite news |url=http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |title=DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 |date=April 8, 2011 |work=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513070316/http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |archive-date=May 13, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{USC|10|164}}</ref><ref>[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022040/http://www.jcs.mil/page.aspx?id=2 About the Joint Chiefs of Staff]. Retrieved February 25, 2013.</ref> | ||
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[[File: P20220408AS-1467 (52067437977).jpg|thumb|President [[Joe Biden]] with his [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] appointee Justice [[Ketanji Brown Jackson]] and (in background) Vice President [[Kamala Harris]] following Brown Jackson's 2022 [[United States Senate]] confirmation]] | [[File: P20220408AS-1467 (52067437977).jpg|thumb|President [[Joe Biden]] with his [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] appointee Justice [[Ketanji Brown Jackson]] and (in background) Vice President [[Kamala Harris]] following Brown Jackson's 2022 [[United States Senate]] confirmation]] | ||
The president has the power to nominate [[United States federal judge|federal judges]], including members of the [[United States courts of appeals]] and the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. However, these nominations require [[Advice and consent#United States|Senate confirmation]] before they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to [[United States district court|U.S. district courts]], presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of | The president has the power to nominate [[United States federal judge|federal judges]], including members of the [[United States courts of appeals]] and the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. However, these nominations require [[Advice and consent#United States|Senate confirmation]] before they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to [[United States district court|U.S. district courts]], presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant [[pardon]]s and [[Pardon#Related concepts|reprieves]]. [[Gerald Ford]] pardoned [[Richard Nixon]] a month after taking office. Presidents often grant pardons shortly before leaving office, like when [[Bill Clinton]] pardoned [[Patty Hearst]] on his last day in office; this is often [[Controversy|controversial]].<ref name="tws8nov12">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=But not since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the president was trying to shield officials for political purposes.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov11">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=The prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger's efforts to hide his notes may have 'forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan' and formed part of a pattern of 'deception and obstruction'.{{nbsp}}... In light of President Bush's own misconduct, we are gravely concerned about his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed official investigations.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov10">{{Cite news |last=Eisler |first=Peter |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-03-06-clinton-library-foia_N.htm |title=Clinton-papers release blocked |date=March 7, 2008 |work=USA Today |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Former president Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office, including several to controversial figures, such as commodities trader Rich, then a fugitive on tax evasion charges. Rich's ex-wife, Denise, contributed $2,000 in 1999 to Hillary Clinton's Senate campaign; $5,000 to a related political action committee; and $450,000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library.}}</ref> | ||
Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is [[executive privilege]], which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Jay]]'s notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the [[Watergate scandal]], the Supreme Court ruled in ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'', {{ussc|418|683|1974}}, that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the [[Clinton–Lewinsky scandal|Lewinsky scandal]], the Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'', {{ussc|520|681|1997}}, that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the [[Precedent|legal precedent]] that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |title=Executive Privilege 101 |last=Millhiser, Ian |date=June 1, 2010 |publisher=Center for American Progress |access-date=October 8, 2010 |archive-date=June 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609224239/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> | Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is [[executive privilege]], which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Jay]]'s notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the [[Watergate scandal]], the Supreme Court ruled in ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'', {{ussc|418|683|1974}}, that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the [[Clinton–Lewinsky scandal|Lewinsky scandal]], the Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'', {{ussc|520|681|1997}}, that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the [[Precedent|legal precedent]] that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |title=Executive Privilege 101 |last=Millhiser, Ian |date=June 1, 2010 |publisher=Center for American Progress |access-date=October 8, 2010 |archive-date=June 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609224239/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
The [[state secrets privilege]] allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from [[Discovery (law)|discovery]] in legal proceedings if such release would harm [[national security]]. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when [[Thomas Jefferson]] refused to release military documents in the [[treason]] trial of [[Aaron Burr]] and again in ''[[Totten v. United States]]'' {{ussc|92|105|1876}}, when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy.<ref>{{cite case |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1537579.html |title=Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan |chapter=Part III |via=FindLaw |access-date=November 29, 2010}}</ref> However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until ''[[United States v. Reynolds]]'' {{ussc|345|1|1953}}, where it was held to be a [[common law]] [[Evidence (law)|evidentiary]] privilege.<ref name="ACS">{{Cite web |url=https://www.acslaw.org/issue_brief/briefs-2007-2011/reforming-the-state-secrets-privilege/ |title=Reforming the State Secrets Privilege |last1=Frost |first1=Amanda |last2=Florence |first2=Justin |year=2009 |publisher=[[American Constitution Society]] |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> Before the | The [[state secrets privilege]] allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from [[Discovery (law)|discovery]] in legal proceedings if such release would harm [[national security]]. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when [[Thomas Jefferson]] refused to release military documents in the [[treason]] trial of [[Aaron Burr]] and again in ''[[Totten v. United States]]'' {{ussc|92|105|1876}}, when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy.<ref>{{cite case |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1537579.html |title=Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan |chapter=Part III |via=FindLaw |access-date=November 29, 2010}}</ref> However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until ''[[United States v. Reynolds]]'' {{ussc|345|1|1953}}, where it was held to be a [[common law]] [[Evidence (law)|evidentiary]] privilege.<ref name="ACS">{{Cite web |url=https://www.acslaw.org/issue_brief/briefs-2007-2011/reforming-the-state-secrets-privilege/ |title=Reforming the State Secrets Privilege |last1=Frost |first1=Amanda |last2=Florence |first2=Justin |year=2009 |publisher=[[American Constitution Society]] |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weaver |first1=William G. |last2=Pallitto |first2=Robert M. |year=2005 |title=State Secrets and Executive Power |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=85–112 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2005.tb00539.x |quote=Use of the state secrets privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty-five years. In the twenty-three years between the decision in Reynolds [1953] and the election of Jimmy Carter, in 1976, there were four reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege. Between 1977 and 2001, there were a total of fifty-one reported cases in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege. Because reported cases represent only a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege is invoked or implicated, it is unclear precisely how dramatically the use of the privilege has grown. But the increase in reported cases is indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past.}}</ref> Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit]]'s ruling in ''[[Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc.]]''<ref name="ACS" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/us/09secrets.html |title=Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A. |date=September 8, 2010 |work=The New York Times |access-date=October 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Finn |first=Peter |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/08/AR2010090807334.html |title=Suit dismissed against firm in CIA rendition case |date=September 9, 2010 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}}</ref> Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2009/02/10/obama |title=The 180-degree reversal of Obama's State Secrets position |last=Glenn Greenwald |author-link=Glenn Greenwald |date=February 10, 2009 |website=Salon |access-date=October 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aclu.org/national-security/background-state-secrets-privilege |title=Background on the State Secrets Privilege |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[American Civil Liberties Union]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}}</ref> | ||
The degree to which the president personally has [[absolute immunity]] from court cases is contested and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions. ''[[Nixon v. Fitzgerald]]'' (1982) dismissed a civil lawsuit against by-then former president Richard Nixon based on his official actions. ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'' (1997) decided that a president has no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before becoming president and ruled that a sexual harassment suit could proceed without delay, even against a sitting president. The 2019 [[Mueller report]] on Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election detailed evidence of possible [[obstruction of justice]], but investigators declined to refer [[Donald Trump]] for prosecution based on a [[United States Department of Justice]] policy against indicting an incumbent president. The report noted that impeachment by Congress was available as a remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal courts regarding access to personal tax returns in a criminal case brought against Donald Trump by the [[New York County District Attorney]] alleging violations of New York state law.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767830713/federal-judge-rules-trump-must-hand-over-8-years-of-tax-returns|title=President Trump Doesn't Need To Release His Tax Returns — For Now|website=[[NPR]]|date=October 7, 2019|access-date=April 28, 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Tanya Ballard}}</ref> | The degree to which the president personally has [[absolute immunity]] from court cases is contested and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions. ''[[Nixon v. Fitzgerald]]'' (1982) dismissed a civil lawsuit against by-then former president Richard Nixon based on his official actions. ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'' (1997) decided that a president has no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before becoming president and ruled that a sexual harassment suit could proceed without delay, even against a sitting president. The 2019 [[Mueller report]] on Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election detailed evidence of possible [[obstruction of justice]], but investigators declined to refer [[Donald Trump]] for prosecution based on a [[United States Department of Justice]] policy against indicting an incumbent president. The report noted that impeachment by Congress was available as a remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal courts regarding access to personal tax returns in a criminal case brought against Donald Trump by the [[New York County District Attorney]] alleging violations of New York state law.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767830713/federal-judge-rules-trump-must-hand-over-8-years-of-tax-returns|title=President Trump Doesn't Need To Release His Tax Returns — For Now|website=[[NPR]]|date=October 7, 2019|access-date=April 28, 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Tanya Ballard}}</ref> | ||
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[[File:Wilson opening day 1916.jpg|thumb|President [[Woodrow Wilson]] throws out the ceremonial first ball on [[Opening Day]] in 1916]] | [[File:Wilson opening day 1916.jpg|thumb|President [[Woodrow Wilson]] throws out the ceremonial first ball on [[Opening Day]] in 1916]] | ||
[[File:President Bill Clinton at Buckingham Palace.jpg|thumb|President [[Bill Clinton]] reviews honor guards at [[Buckingham Palace]] during a 1995 state visit to the UK]] | [[File:President Bill Clinton at Buckingham Palace.jpg|thumb|President [[Bill Clinton]] reviews honor guards at [[Buckingham Palace]] during a 1995 state visit to the UK]] | ||
As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal ceremonial duties. For example, [[William Howard Taft]] started the tradition of throwing out the [[ceremonial first pitch]] in 1910 at [[Griffith Stadium]], Washington, D.C., on the [[Minnesota Twins#Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960|Washington Senators's]] [[Opening Day]]. Every president since Taft, except for [[Jimmy Carter]], threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]], or the [[World Series]], usually with much fanfare.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Duggan |first=Paul |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040101262.html |title=Balking at the First Pitch |date=April 2, 2007 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=A01}}</ref> Every president since | As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal ceremonial duties. For example, [[William Howard Taft]] started the tradition of throwing out the [[ceremonial first pitch]] in 1910 at [[Griffith Stadium]], Washington, D.C., on the [[Minnesota Twins#Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960|Washington Senators's]] [[Opening Day]]. Every president since Taft, except for [[Jimmy Carter]], threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]], or the [[World Series]], usually with much fanfare.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Duggan |first=Paul |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040101262.html |title=Balking at the First Pitch |date=April 2, 2007 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=A01}}</ref> Every president since Theodore Roosevelt has served as honorary president of the [[Boy Scouts of America]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |title=History of the BSA Fact Sheet |publisher=Boy Scouts of America |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629031545/http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |archive-date=June 29, 2014 |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> | ||
Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] began in 1878 the first White House [[egg rolling]] for local children.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grier |first=Peter |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0425/The-not-so-secret-history-of-the-White-House-Easter-Egg-Roll |title=The (not so) secret history of the White House Easter Egg Roll |date=April 25, 2011 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |access-date=July 30, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120730230856/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0425/The-not-so-secret-history-of-the-White-House-Easter-Egg-Roll |archive-date=July 30, 2012}}</ref> Beginning in 1947, during the | Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] began in 1878 the first White House [[egg rolling]] for local children.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grier |first=Peter |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0425/The-not-so-secret-history-of-the-White-House-Easter-Egg-Roll |title=The (not so) secret history of the White House Easter Egg Roll |date=April 25, 2011 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |access-date=July 30, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120730230856/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0425/The-not-so-secret-history-of-the-White-House-Easter-Egg-Roll |archive-date=July 30, 2012}}</ref> Beginning in 1947, during the Harry S. Truman administration, every [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual [[National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation]] held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized by [[George H. W. Bush]], the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.<ref name="Hesse">{{Cite news |last=Hesse |first=Monica |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/20/AR2007112002331_4.html |title=Turkey Pardons, The Stuffing of Historic Legend |date=November 21, 2007 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=May 14, 2011}}</ref> | ||
Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since [[James Buchanan]] traditionally give advice to their successor during the [[United States presidential transition|presidential transition]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gibbs |first=Nancy |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1858896,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121194256/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1858896,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 21, 2008 |title=How Presidents Pass The Torch |date=November 13, 2008 |work=[[Time magazine|Time]] |access-date=May 6, 2011 }}</ref> [[Ronald Reagan]] and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on [[United States presidential inauguration|Inauguration Day]] for the incoming president.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dorning |first=Mike |url=http://www.cleveland.com/news/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/news/1232616798110550.xml&coll=2 |title=A note from Bush starts morning in the Oval Office |date=January 22, 2009 |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |access-date=May 6, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228085232/http://www.cleveland.com/news/plaindealer/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fnews%2F1232616798110550.xml&coll=2 |archive-date=December 28, 2011 }}</ref> | Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since [[James Buchanan]] traditionally give advice to their successor during the [[United States presidential transition|presidential transition]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gibbs |first=Nancy |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1858896,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121194256/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1858896,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 21, 2008 |title=How Presidents Pass The Torch |date=November 13, 2008 |work=[[Time magazine|Time]] |access-date=May 6, 2011 }}</ref> [[Ronald Reagan]] and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on [[United States presidential inauguration|Inauguration Day]] for the incoming president.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dorning |first=Mike |url=http://www.cleveland.com/news/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/news/1232616798110550.xml&coll=2 |title=A note from Bush starts morning in the Oval Office |date=January 22, 2009 |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |access-date=May 6, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228085232/http://www.cleveland.com/news/plaindealer/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fnews%2F1232616798110550.xml&coll=2 |archive-date=December 28, 2011 }}</ref> | ||
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The modern presidential campaign begins before the [[United States presidential primary|primary elections]], which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their [[United States presidential nominating convention|national nominating conventions]], where the most successful candidate is made the party's presidential nominee. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is [[Rubber stamp (politics)|rubber-stamped]] by the convention. The most common previous profession of presidents is lawyer.<ref>International Law, US Power: The United States' Quest for Legal Security, p 10, Shirley V. Scott—2012</ref> | The modern presidential campaign begins before the [[United States presidential primary|primary elections]], which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their [[United States presidential nominating convention|national nominating conventions]], where the most successful candidate is made the party's presidential nominee. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is [[Rubber stamp (politics)|rubber-stamped]] by the convention. The most common previous profession of presidents is lawyer.<ref>International Law, US Power: The United States' Quest for Legal Security, p 10, Shirley V. Scott—2012</ref> | ||
Nominees participate in [[United States presidential debates|nationally televised debates]], and while the debates are usually restricted to the | Nominees participate in [[United States presidential debates|nationally televised debates]], and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominees, [[Third party (United States)|third party]] candidates may be invited, such as [[Ross Perot]] in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning [[swing state]]s through frequent visits and [[mass media]] advertising drives. | ||
=== Election === | === Election === | ||
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== Incumbency == | == Incumbency == | ||
=== Term limit === | === Term limit === | ||
[[File:William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (3360755866).jpg|thumb|President [[William McKinley]] and his vice presidential running mate, New York Governor | [[File:William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (3360755866).jpg|thumb|President [[William McKinley]] and his vice presidential running mate, New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt, {{Circa|1900}}]] | ||
[[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] won a record four [[United States presidential election|presidential elections]] in [[1932 United States presidential election|1932]], [[1936 United States presidential election|1936]], [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]], and [[1944 United States presidential election|1944]] prior to the implementation of the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd amendment]] in 1951, which instituted a two-term limit.]] | [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] won a record four [[United States presidential election|presidential elections]] in [[1932 United States presidential election|1932]], [[1936 United States presidential election|1936]], [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]], and [[1944 United States presidential election|1944]] prior to the implementation of the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd amendment]] in 1951, which instituted a two-term limit.]] | ||
When the first president, [[George Washington]], announced in his [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]] that he was not running for a third term, he established a "two terms then out" precedent. Precedent became tradition after [[Thomas Jefferson]] publicly embraced the principle a decade later during his second term, as did his two immediate successors, [[James Madison]] and [[James Monroe]].<ref name="TermsTenure">{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> In spite of the strong two-term tradition, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sought nomination at the [[1880 Republican National Convention]] for a non-consecutive third term, but was unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> | When the first president, [[George Washington]], announced in his [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]] that he was not running for a third term, he established a "two terms then out" precedent. Precedent became tradition after [[Thomas Jefferson]] publicly embraced the principle a decade later during his second term, as did his two immediate successors, [[James Madison]] and [[James Monroe]].<ref name="TermsTenure">{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> In spite of the strong two-term tradition, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sought nomination at the [[1880 Republican National Convention]] for a non-consecutive third term, but was unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> | ||
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In 1940, after leading the nation through the [[Great Depression]] and focused on supporting U.S. [[Allies of World War II|allied nations]] at war with the [[Axis powers]], Franklin Roosevelt was elected to a third term, breaking the long-standing precedent. Four years later, with the U.S. engaged in [[World War II]], he was re-elected again despite his declining physical health; he died 82 days into his fourth term on April 12, 1945.<ref name="22ndAPPC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> | In 1940, after leading the nation through the [[Great Depression]] and focused on supporting U.S. [[Allies of World War II|allied nations]] at war with the [[Axis powers]], Franklin Roosevelt was elected to a third term, breaking the long-standing precedent. Four years later, with the U.S. engaged in [[World War II]], he was re-elected again despite his declining physical health; he died 82 days into his fourth term on April 12, 1945.<ref name="22ndAPPC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> | ||
In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt's presidency, the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-second Amendment]] was [[ratification|adopted]] in 1951. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than two years (24 months) of another president's four-year term. | In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt's presidency, the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-second Amendment]] was [[ratification|adopted]] in 1951. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than two years (24 months) of another president's four-year term. Harry S. Truman, the president at the time it was submitted to the states by the Congress, was exempted from its limitations. Without the exemption, he would not have been eligible to run for a second full term in 1952 (which he briefly sought), as he had served nearly all of Franklin Roosevelt's unexpired 1945–1949 term and had been elected to a full four-year term beginning in 1949.<ref name=22ndAPPC /> | ||
=== Vacancies and succession === | === Vacancies and succession === | ||
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{{Main|Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution}} | {{Main|Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution}} | ||
Under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may temporarily transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes [[Acting president of the United States|acting president]], by transmitting to the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|speaker of the House]] and the [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|president ''pro tempore'' of the Senate]] a statement that he is unable to discharge his duties. The president resumes his or her powers upon transmitting a second declaration stating that he is again able. The mechanism has been used by [[Ronald Reagan]] (once), | Under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may temporarily transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes [[Acting president of the United States|acting president]], by transmitting to the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|speaker of the House]] and the [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|president ''pro tempore'' of the Senate]] a statement that he is unable to discharge his duties. The president resumes his or her powers upon transmitting a second declaration stating that he is again able. The mechanism has been used by [[Ronald Reagan]] (once), George W. Bush (twice), and [[Joe Biden]] (once), each in anticipation of surgery.<ref>{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}}</ref> | ||
The Twenty-fifth Amendment also provides that the vice president, together with a majority of certain members of the [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]], may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration, to the speaker of the House and the president ''pro tempore'' of the Senate, to the effect that the president is unable to discharge his or her powers and duties. If the president then declares that no such inability exist, he or she resumes the presidential powers unless the vice president and Cabinet make a second declaration of presidential inability, in which case Congress decides the question. | The Twenty-fifth Amendment also provides that the vice president, together with a majority of certain members of the [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]], may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration, to the speaker of the House and the president ''pro tempore'' of the Senate, to the effect that the president is unable to discharge his or her powers and duties. If the president then declares that no such inability exist, he or she resumes the presidential powers unless the vice president and Cabinet make a second declaration of presidential inability, in which case Congress decides the question. | ||
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For short-distance air travel, the president has access to a fleet of [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] helicopters of varying models, designated ''[[Marine One]]'' when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the president is actually aboard to any would-be threats. | For short-distance air travel, the president has access to a fleet of [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] helicopters of varying models, designated ''[[Marine One]]'' when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the president is actually aboard to any would-be threats. | ||
For ground travel, the president uses the [[Presidential state car (United States)|presidential state car]], which is an armored [[limousine]] designed to look like a [[Cadillac]] sedan, but built on a truck [[chassis]].<ref name="USSSPRL">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090118094400/http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009.</ref><ref name="CNN20090106">{{Cite news |last1=Ahlers |first1=Mike M. |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/06/driving.obama/ |title=Obama's wheels: Secret Service to unveil new presidential limo |date=January 6, 2009 |access-date=December 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202181423/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/06/driving.obama/ |archive-date=February 2, 2016 |publisher= | For ground travel, the president uses the [[Presidential state car (United States)|presidential state car]], which is an armored [[limousine]] designed to look like a [[Cadillac]] sedan, but built on a truck [[chassis]].<ref name="USSSPRL">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090118094400/http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009.</ref><ref name="CNN20090106">{{Cite news |last1=Ahlers |first1=Mike M. |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/06/driving.obama/ |title=Obama's wheels: Secret Service to unveil new presidential limo |date=January 6, 2009 |access-date=December 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202181423/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/06/driving.obama/ |archive-date=February 2, 2016 |publisher=CNN |last2=Marrapodi |first2=Eric}}</ref> The [[United States Secret Service|U.S. Secret Service]] operates and maintains the fleet of several limousines. The president also has access to [[Ground Force One|two armored motorcoaches]], which are primarily used for [[Whistle stop train tour|touring trips]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.factcheck.org/2011/08/obamas-canadian-american-bus/ |title=Obama's Canadian-American Bus |last=Farley |first=Robert |date=August 25, 2011 |website=FactCheck |access-date=December 16, 2017}}</ref> | ||
<gallery mode="packed" style="text-align: center;" caption="Presidential transportation" heights="150px" perrow="3"> | <gallery mode="packed" style="text-align: center;" caption="Presidential transportation" heights="150px" perrow="3"> | ||
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== Post-presidency == | == Post-presidency == | ||
[[File:Five Presidents Oval Office.jpg|thumb|From left to right: Presidents [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Barack Obama]], | [[File:Five Presidents Oval Office.jpg|thumb|From left to right: Presidents [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Barack Obama]], George W. Bush, [[Bill Clinton]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] in the [[Oval Office]] on January 7, 2009; Obama took office thirteen days later.]] | ||
=== Activities === | === Activities === | ||
Some former presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include [[William Howard Taft]]'s tenure as [[chief justice of the United States]] and [[Herbert Hoover]]'s work on government reorganization after [[World War II]]. [[Grover Cleveland]], whose bid for reelection failed in [[1888 United States presidential election|1888]], was elected president again four years later in [[1892 United States presidential election|1892]], and [[Donald Trump]], whose bid for reelection failed in [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], was elected president again four years later in [[2024 United States presidential election|2024]]. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: [[John Quincy Adams]] was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for 17 years, and [[Andrew Johnson]] returned to the Senate in 1875, though he died soon after. Some ex-presidents were very active, especially in international affairs, most notably Theodore Roosevelt;<ref>Edmund Morris, ''Colonel Roosevelt'' (2011)</ref> Herbert Hoover;<ref>Gary Dean Best, ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964'' (2013)</ref> Richard Nixon;<ref>Kasey S. Pipes, ''After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of Richard Nixon'' (2019)</ref> and Jimmy Carter.<ref>Douglas Brinkley. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White House'' (1998).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = John Whiteclay | first1 = Chambers II | year = 1979 | title = Presidents Emeritus | journal = American Heritage | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 16–25 }}</ref> | Some former presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include [[William Howard Taft]]'s tenure as [[chief justice of the United States]] and [[Herbert Hoover]]'s work on government reorganization after [[World War II]]. [[Grover Cleveland]], whose bid for reelection failed in [[1888 United States presidential election|1888]], was elected president again four years later in [[1892 United States presidential election|1892]], and [[Donald Trump]], whose bid for reelection failed in [[2020 United States presidential election|2020]], was elected president again four years later in [[2024 United States presidential election|2024]]. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: [[John Quincy Adams]] was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for 17 years, and [[Andrew Johnson]] returned to the Senate in 1875, though he died soon after. Some ex-presidents were very active, especially in international affairs, most notably Theodore Roosevelt;<ref>Edmund Morris, ''Colonel Roosevelt'' (2011)</ref> Herbert Hoover;<ref>Gary Dean Best, ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964'' (2013)</ref> Richard Nixon;<ref>Kasey S. Pipes, ''After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of Richard Nixon'' (2019)</ref> and Jimmy Carter.<ref>Douglas Brinkley. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White House'' (1998).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = John Whiteclay | first1 = Chambers II | year = 1979 | title = Presidents Emeritus | journal = American Heritage | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 16–25 }}</ref> | ||
Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events.<ref name="apreaction19810331">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |title=Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States |date=March 31, 1981 |access-date=March 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906144021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bM4FAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref name="4presidentsphotos">{{Cite web |url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |title=Four Presidents |publisher=Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=April 3, 2011 |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512020542/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]] made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/richardnixon |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |title=Biography of Richard M. Nixon |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |date=December 30, 2014 }}, The White House.</ref> [[Jimmy Carter]] has become a global [[human rights]] campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. [[Bill Clinton]] has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American [[journalist]]s, [[Laura Ling]] and [[Euna Lee]], from [[North Korea]]. During his presidency, | Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events.<ref name="apreaction19810331">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |title=Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States |date=March 31, 1981 |access-date=March 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906144021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bM4FAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref name="4presidentsphotos">{{Cite web |url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |title=Four Presidents |publisher=Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=April 3, 2011 |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512020542/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]] made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/richardnixon |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |title=Biography of Richard M. Nixon |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |date=December 30, 2014 }}, The White House.</ref> [[Jimmy Carter]] has become a global [[human rights]] campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. [[Bill Clinton]] has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American [[journalist]]s, [[Laura Ling]] and [[Euna Lee]], from [[North Korea]]. During his presidency, George W. Bush called on former Presidents [[George H.W. Bush|Bush]] and [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] to assist with humanitarian efforts after the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]]. President Obama followed suit by asking Presidents [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush|Bush]] to lead efforts to aid Haiti after an [[2010 Haiti earthquake|earthquake]] devastated that country in 2010. | ||
Clinton has been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary]] on her [[Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign|2008]] and [[Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign|2016]] presidential bids and President Obama on his [[Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|2012 reelection campaign]]. Obama has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, having worked with his former vice president [[Joe Biden]] on his [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|2020 election campaign]]. | Clinton has been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary]] on her [[Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign|2008]] and [[Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign|2016]] presidential bids and President Obama on his [[Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|2012 reelection campaign]]. Obama has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, having worked with his former vice president [[Joe Biden]] on his [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|2020 election campaign]]. | ||
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The pension has increased numerous times with congressional approval. Retired presidents receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 per year in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20115.pdf |title=President of the United States: Compensation |last=Schwemle |first=Barbara L. |date=October 17, 2012 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect [[congressional pension]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/01/07/Former-presidents-cost-U-S-taxpayers-big-bucks-tab-from-1977-to-2000-is-pegged-at-370-million.html |title=Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks |date=January 7, 2007 |website=[[The Blade (Toledo)|Toledo Blade]] |access-date=May 22, 2007}}</ref> The act also provides former presidents with travel funds and [[franking]] privileges. | The pension has increased numerous times with congressional approval. Retired presidents receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 per year in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20115.pdf |title=President of the United States: Compensation |last=Schwemle |first=Barbara L. |date=October 17, 2012 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect [[congressional pension]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/01/07/Former-presidents-cost-U-S-taxpayers-big-bucks-tab-from-1977-to-2000-is-pegged-at-370-million.html |title=Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks |date=January 7, 2007 |website=[[The Blade (Toledo)|Toledo Blade]] |access-date=May 22, 2007}}</ref> The act also provides former presidents with travel funds and [[franking]] privileges. | ||
Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death.<ref>{{usc|18|3056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |title=Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses |date=January 10, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |archive-date=August 23, 2016 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting Secret Service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office.<ref name="secretservice.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ |title=United States Secret Service: Protection |publisher=United States Secret Service |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection for him, | Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death.<ref>{{usc|18|3056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |title=Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses |date=January 10, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |archive-date=August 23, 2016 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting Secret Service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office.<ref name="secretservice.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ |title=United States Secret Service: Protection |publisher=United States Secret Service |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/jan/10/inside-politics-obama-signs-protection-bill-for-fo/?page=all |title=Obama signs protection bill for former presidents |date=January 10, 2013 |work=The Washington Times |access-date=August 14, 2013}}</ref> A [[First Spouse of the United States|first spouse]] who remarries is no longer eligible for Secret Service protection.<ref name="secretservice.gov" /> | ||
=== Presidential libraries === | === Presidential libraries === | ||
{{Main|Presidential library system}} | {{Main|Presidential library system}} | ||
[[File:George W. Bush Presidential Center dedication.tif|alt=|thumb|From left to right: Presidents [[Barack Obama]], | [[File:George W. Bush Presidential Center dedication.tif|alt=|thumb|From left to right: Presidents [[Barack Obama]], George W. Bush, [[Bill Clinton]], [[George H. W. Bush]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] at the dedication of the [[George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] in [[Dallas]] in 2013]] | ||
Every president since [[Herbert Hoover]] has created a [[Institutional repository|repository]] known as a [[Presidential library system|presidential library]] for preserving and making available his papers, records, and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources.<ref>{{usc|44|2112}}</ref> There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, including: | Every president since [[Herbert Hoover]] has created a [[Institutional repository|repository]] known as a [[Presidential library system|presidential library]] for preserving and making available his papers, records, and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources.<ref>{{usc|44|2112}}</ref> There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, including: | ||
* The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]], which is run by the State of [[Illinois]]; | * The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]], which is run by the State of [[Illinois]]; | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| style="background: {{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}};" | | | style="background: {{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}};" | | ||
| | | Democratic | ||
| style="text-align: center;" |15 | | style="text-align: center;" |15 | ||
| '''[[Joe Biden]] (incumbent)''', [[James Buchanan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Barack Obama]], [[Franklin Pierce]], [[James K. Polk]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Martin Van Buren]], and [[Woodrow Wilson]] | | '''[[Joe Biden]] (incumbent)''', [[James Buchanan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Barack Obama]], [[Franklin Pierce]], [[James K. Polk]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Martin Van Buren]], and [[Woodrow Wilson]] | ||