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{{Organization
|OrganizationName=Oak Ridge National Laboratory
|OrganizationType=Research and Development Agencies (Sub-organization)
|Mission=Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducts world-leading research to deliver scientific discoveries and technical breakthroughs in energy, national security, and environmental science, aiming to solve global challenges. It translates fundamental science into practical solutions that support the U.S. Department of Energy's missions.
|ParentOrganization=Office of Science
|Employees=7000
|Budget=$2.4 billion (Fiscal Year 2024)
|OrganizationExecutive=Director
|Services=Energy research; National security; Materials science; Neutron science; High-performance computing
|HeadquartersLocation=35.9833, -84.22297
|HeadquartersAddress=1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
|Website=https://www.ornl.gov/
}}
{{Short description|Laboratory in Tennessee, United States}}

'''Oak Ridge National Laboratory''' ('''ORNL''') is a [[federally funded research and development centers|federally funded research and development center]] in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]], United States. Founded in 1943, the laboratory is now sponsored by the [[United States Department of Energy]] and administered by [[UT–Battelle|UT–Battelle, LLC]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Master Government List of Federally Funded R&D Centers {{!}} NCSES {{!}} NSF |url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/ffrdclist/ |access-date=2023-03-08 |website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref>

Established in 1943, ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system by size<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oakridge.doe.gov/external/ |title=Oakridge.doe.gov |publisher=Oakridge.doe.gov |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701124158/http://www.oakridge.doe.gov/external/ |archive-date=July 1, 2012 |access-date=July 14, 2012}}</ref> and third largest by annual budget.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/03/f60/doe-fy2020-laboratory-table.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/03/f60/doe-fy2020-laboratory-table.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Department of Energy FY 2020 Congressional Budget Request |date=March 2019 |publisher=Department of Energy |access-date=September 30, 2020}}</ref> It is located in the [[Roane County, Tennessee|Roane County]] section of Oak Ridge.<ref name="roane">{{cite web |title=Welcome to Roane County |url=https://www.roanealliance.org/#:~:text=Roane%20County%20is%20home%20to%20the%20nation%27s%20top,of%20Tennessee%20all%20comes%20together%20in%20Roane%20County |website=Roane Alliance |access-date=September 17, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Maps and Directions |url=https://www.ornl.gov/content/maps-and-directions |website=ornl.gov |access-date=9 January 2021}}</ref> Its scientific programs focus on [[materials science|materials]], [[nuclear power|nuclear science]], [[neutron]] science, energy, [[high-performance computing]], [[environmental science]], [[systems biology]] and [[national security]], sometimes in partnership with the state of [[Tennessee]], universities and other industries.

ORNL has <!-- the only objects with ‘’homes’’ are those that do non- testing-motivated work, get relocated, then do such work at a new location — see [[World Convention on Rights of Sentient Machines]] --> several of the world's top [[supercomputers]], including [[Frontier (supercomputer)|Frontier]], ranked by the [[TOP500]] as the world's most powerful. The lab is a leading neutron and nuclear power research facility that includes the [[Spallation Neutron Source]], the [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]], and the [[Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences]].

==Overview==
Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed by [[UT–Battelle]],<ref name="Kusnezov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/08/f18/July%2018%20Kusnezov%20FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/08/f18/July%2018%20Kusnezov%20FINAL.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=The Department of Energy's National Laboratory Complex |last=Dimitri Kusnezov |date=July 18, 2014}}</ref> a [[limited liability partnership]] between the [[University of Tennessee]] and the [[Battelle Memorial Institute]], formed in 2000 for that purpose.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ut-battelle.org/about.shtml |title=About UT-Battelle |publisher=UT-Battelle |access-date=February 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630031540/http://ut-battelle.org/about.shtml |archive-date=June 30, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The annual budget is US$2.4&nbsp;billion. As of 2021 there is a staff of 5,700 working at ORNL, around 2,000 of whom are scientists and engineers,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zacharia|first1=Thomas |title=ORNL-TVA-UT partnership brings industries of the future to Oak Ridge-Knoxville region |url=https://www.knoxnews.com/story/opinion/2021/06/03/oak-ridge-national-laboratory-tva-university-of-tennessee-accelerator/7507675002/ |website=knoxnews.com |publisher=Knoxville News Sentinel |access-date=3 March 2022}}</ref> and an additional 3,200 guest researchers annually.<ref>{{Cite web|year=2012|title=Oak Ridge National Laboratory Fact Sheet|url=https://www.ornl.gov/file/ornl-fact-sheet/display|access-date=July 28, 2021|publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory}}</ref>

There are five campuses on the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge reservation: the National Laboratory, the [[Y-12 National Security Complex]], the East Tennessee Technology Park (formerly the [[K-25|Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant]]), the [[Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education]], and the developing Oak Ridge Science and Technology Park, although the four other facilities are unrelated to the National Laboratory.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/who_we_are_not.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112152756/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/who_we_are_not.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=Who We Are Not |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 9, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="doesite">{{Cite web |url=http://energy.gov/em/oak-ridge-site |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715003346/http://energy.gov/em/oak-ridge-site |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 15, 2013 |title=Oak Ridge Site |publisher=US Department of Energy |access-date=February 9, 2013 }}</ref> The total area of the reservation is 150&nbsp;square&nbsp;kilometres (58&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) of which the lab takes up 18&nbsp;square&nbsp;kilometres (7&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi).<ref name="about">{{Cite web|title=About ORN|url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/about.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214191011/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/about.shtml|archive-date=February 14, 2013|access-date=February 9, 2013|publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://science.energy.gov/laboratories/oak-ridge-national-laboratory/ |title=Labs at-a-Glance: Oak Ridge National Laboratory |publisher=US Department of Energy |access-date=February 9, 2013}}</ref>

== History ==
[[Image:X10 Reactor Face.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Workers in 1943 loading uranium slugs into the [[X-10 Graphite Reactor]] (now a National Historic Landmark)]]

In 1934 the [[Freel Farm Mound Site]], an archaeological site and burial mound of the [[Late Woodland period]] was excavated.<ref name="US Dept 1 group" >{{cite book|last=Administration, U.S. Department of Energy: National Nuclear Security|title=Findings of No Significant Impact and Final Environmental Assessment for the Y-12 Potable Water System Upgrade|year=2006|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|location=Oak Ridge, TN}}</ref> The site is currently inundated by [[Melton Hill Lake]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fielder |first=George F Jr. |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1974/3445603172117.pdf |title=Archaeological Survey with Emphasis on Prehistoric Sites of the Oak Ridge Reservation Oak Ridge Tennessee |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |year=1974 |location=Oak Ridge, TN}}</ref>

The city of [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee|Oak Ridge]] was established by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Army Corps of Engineers]] as part of the [[Clinton Engineer Works]] in 1942 on isolated farm land as part of the [[Manhattan Project]].<ref name="bigproblems">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/ornl_brochure.pdf |title=Solving the Big Problems |year=2007 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=November 11, 2012 |archive-date=October 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016233405/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/ornl_brochure.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> During World War II, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by the [[University of Chicago]]'s [[Metallurgical Laboratory]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ornl.gov/timeline#event-under-construction |title=Timeline of ORNL Science – construction |website=www.ornl.gov |access-date=February 11, 2019}}</ref> In 1943, construction of the Clinton Laboratories, what would later be known as the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, was completed.<ref name=bigproblems/><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Clinton Lab occupies many Y-12 buildings and becomes Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url=http://www.y12.doe.gov/sites/default/files/assets/document/08-05-22.pdf |access-date=August 25, 2023 |website=y12.doe.gov}}</ref> The site was chosen for the [[X-10 Graphite Reactor]], used to produce [[plutonium]] from natural [[uranium]]. [[Enrico Fermi]] and his colleagues developed the world's second self-sustaining [[nuclear reactor]] after Fermi's previous experiment, the [[Chicago Pile-1]].  The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation.<ref name="x10">{{Cite web |url={{NHLS url|id=66000720}} |title=X-10 Reactor, Graphite Reactor |last=Rettig |first=Polly |date=December 8, 1975 |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |access-date=November 11, 2012}}</ref>

After the end of World War II, management of the lab was contracted by the US government to [[Monsanto]]; however, they withdrew in 1947.<ref name="swords">{{Cite web |date=April 8, 2006 |title=Swords to Plowshares: A Short History of Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1943–1993) |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/swords/swords.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201205140/http://www.ornl.gov/info/swords/swords.shtml |archive-date=December 1, 2012 |access-date=November 11, 2012 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory}}</ref> The [[University of Chicago]] temporarily re-assumed responsibility, with the site receiving the prestigious "National" laboratory designation, until in December 1947, when [[Union Carbide|Union Carbide and Carbon Co.]], which already operated two other facilities at Oak Ridge, took control of the laboratory and renamed the site Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).<ref name=":0" /><ref name="swords" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=September 8, 2011 |title=ORNL contractor gives $25K to Weinberg memorial effort |work=[[The Oak Ridger|Oak Ridger]] |url=http://www.oakridger.com/article/20110908/NEWS/309089996 |access-date=November 16, 2012}}</ref>

Post-war, the demand for [[military science]] had fallen dramatically, and the future of the lab was uncertain. The X-10 reactor and the laboratory's 1,000 employees were no longer involved in nuclear weapons.<ref name="bigproblems" /><ref name="swords" /> Instead, it was used for scientific research.<ref name="x10" /> In 1946 the first [[Isotopes in medicine|medical isotopes]] were produced in the X-10 reactor, and by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals.<ref name="x10" /><ref name="swords" /> The quantity and variety of [[radionuclide]]s produced by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s. ORNL was the only Western source of [[californium-252]].<ref name="swords" /> ORNL scientists also performed the world's first successful [[bone marrow transplant]] in mice by suppressing their [[immune system]]s.<ref name="swords" />

[[File:MSRE Core.JPG|thumb|The core of the [[Molten Salt Reactor Experiment]]]]

In 1950 the [[Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology]] was established with two courses in reactor operation and safety; almost 1,000 students graduated.<ref name=swords/> Much of the research performed at ORNL in the 1950s was related to nuclear reactors as a form of energy production, both for propulsion and electricity. More reactors were built in the 1950s than in the rest of the ORNL's history combined.<ref name=swords/> One of their most influential projects was the [[light-water reactor]], a precursor to many modern nuclear power stations. The [[United States Armed Forces|US Military]] funded much of its development, for [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered submarines and ships]] of the [[US Navy]].<ref name="swords" /> The [[US Army]] also contracted the design of portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases.<ref name="timeline">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v36_1_03/timeline/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040221093626/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v36_1_03/timeline/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 21, 2004 |title=ORNL Review Timeline |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=November 11, 2012 }}</ref>  The reactors were produced by the [[American Locomotive Company]] and used in [[Greenland]], the [[Panama Canal Zone]], and [[Antarctica]].<ref name="swords" />  The [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] also contributed funding to three reactors, the lab's first computers, and its first particle accelerators.<ref name="swords" /> ORNL built its [[Aircraft Reactor Experiment|first molten salt reactor in 1954]] as a proof-of-concept for a proposed fleet of [[Strategic bomber|long-range bombers]], but it was never used.<ref name="swords" /><ref name="timeline" />[[File:Pentecost-johnson-ellington-gore-ornl.jpg|thumb|Cayce Pentecost, Lyndon B. Johnson, [[Buford Ellington]] and [[Albert Gore Sr.]] operating mechanical hands at a hot cell at Oak Ridge, on October 19, 1958.]]Alvin M. Weinberg was named Director of Research, ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory.<ref name="swords" /><ref name=":1" /> In the early 1960s there was a large push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powered [[desalination]] plants, where deserts met the sea, to provide water. The project, called Water for Peace, was backed by [[John F. Kennedy]] and Lyndon B. Johnson and was presented at a 1964 United Nations conference, but increases in the cost of construction and falling public confidence in nuclear power caused the plan to be shuttered.<ref name="swords" /><ref name="timeline" /> The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used for [[radiation exposure]] experiments leading to more accurate [[Dosimetry|dosage limits]] and [[dosimeter]]s, and improved [[Radiation protection|radiation shielding]].<ref name="swords" />

In 1964 the [[Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment]] began with the construction of the reactor. It operated from 1966 until 1969 (with six months down time to move from [[Uranium-235|U-235]] to [[Uranium-233|U-233]] fuel) and proved the viability of [[molten salt reactor]]s, while also producing fuel for other reactors as a byproduct of its own reaction.<ref name="swords" /> The [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] built in 1965 had the highest [[neutron flux]] of any reactor at the time.<ref name="swords" /> It improved upon the work of the X-10 reactor, producing more medical isotopes as well as allowing higher fidelity of materials research.<ref name="swords" /> Researchers in the biology division studied the effects of chemicals on mice, including [[air pollution|petrol fumes]], [[Health effects of pesticides|pesticides]], and [[Health effects of tobacco|tobacco]].<ref name="swords" /> 

[[File:ORMAK (46436229152).jpg|thumb|left|The inside of ORMAK, an early [[tokamak]], was gold plated for reflectivity]]

In the late 1960s, cuts in funding led to the cancellation of plans for another particle accelerator, and the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] cut the breeder reactor program by two-thirds, leading to a downsizing in staff from 5,000 to 3,800.<ref name="swords" /> In the 1970s, the prospect of [[fusion power]] was strongly considered, sparking research at ORNL. A [[tokamak]] called ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/chapter6.shtml |title=Responding to Social Needs |year=2002 |website=ORNL Review |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 |archive-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224015418/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/chapter6.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the success of the fusion experiments, it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however, the experiments ultimately failed to lead to fusion power plants.<ref name="swords" />[[File:S.R. Sapirie, Senator Albert Gore, Senator Lyndon Johnson, Dr. John Swartout, Looking at Model of Graghite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Lab. (6964225494).jpg|thumb|right|S.R. Sapirie, Senator [[Albert Gore Sr.]], Senator [[Lyndon Johnson]] and Dr.John Swartout looking at a model of a graphite reactor at [[Oak Ridge National Lab]], on October 19, 1958.]]

The [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|US Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) required improved safety standards in the early 1970s for nuclear reactors, so ORNL staff wrote almost 100 requirements covering many factors including fuel transport and earthquake resistance. In 1972 the AEC held a series of public hearings where emergency cooling requirements were highlighted and the safety requirements became more stringent.<ref name="swords" /> Also in 1972, [[Peter Mazur]], a biologist at ORNL, froze with [[liquid nitrogen]], thawed and implanted mouse [[embryo]]s in a [[surrogate mother]]. The mouse pups were born healthy.<ref name="swords" /> The technique is popular in the livestock industry, as it allows the embryos of valuable cattle to be transported easily and a prize cow can have multiple eggs extracted and thus, through [[In vitro fertilisation|''in vitro'' fertilisation]], have many more offspring than would naturally be possible.<ref name="swords" />

In 1974 Alvin Weinberg, director of the lab for 19 years, was replaced by [[Herman Postma]], a fusion scientist.<ref name="swords" /> In 1977 construction began for 6&nbsp;metre (20&nbsp;foot) [[Superconductivity|superconducting]] [[electromagnet]]s, intended to control [[Nuclear fusion|fusion reactions]]. The project was an international effort: three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one in [[Switzerland]] and the final by remaining European states.<ref name="swords" /> ORNL was involved in analysing the damage to the core of the [[Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station]] after the [[Three Mile Island accident|accident in 1979]].<ref name="swords" /> 

The 1980s brought more changes to ORNL: a focus on efficiency became paramount. An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time.<ref name="swords" /> Materials research into heat resistant [[Ceramic engineering|ceramics]] for use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s.<ref name="swords" /> In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established, where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regarding [[Reaganomics|Reagan's economic policy]] of less government expenditure.<ref name="swords" /> In 1981, the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility, a 25&nbsp;MV [[particle accelerator]], was opened at ORNL. At the time, Holifield had the widest range of ion species and was twice as powerful as other accelerators, attracting hundreds of guest researchers each year.<ref name="swords" />

The Department of Energy was concerned with the pollution surrounding ORNL, and it began clean-up efforts. Burial trenches and leaking pipes had [[Groundwater pollution|contaminated the groundwater]] beneath the lab, and radiation tanks were sitting idle, full of [[Radioactive waste|waste]]. Estimates of the total cost of clean-up were into the hundreds of millions of US dollars.<ref name="swords" /> The five older reactors were subjected to safety reviews in 1987, ordered to be deactivated until the reviews were complete. By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted, the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted.<ref name="swords" /> In 1989 the former executive officer of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]], [[Alvin Trivelpiece]], became director of ORNL; he remained in the role until 2000.<ref name="swords" />

In 1992 [[whistleblower]] Charles Varnadore filed complaints against ORNL, alleging safety violations and retaliation by his superiors. While an administrative law judge ruled in Varnadore's favor, Secretary of Labor [[Robert Reich]] overturned that ruling. However, Varnadore's case saw prime contractor [[Martin Marietta]] cited for safety violations and ultimately led to additional whistleblower protection within DOE.<ref>Martin, Douglas, Charles Varnadore, whistleblower at lab, dies at 71, [[New York Times]], August 5, 2013, p. B8</ref>

In January 2019 ORNL announced a major breakthrough in its capacity to automate [[Plutonium-238|Pu-238]] production which helped push annual production from 50 grams to 400 grams, moving closer to [[NASA]]'s goal of 1.5 kilograms per year by 2025 in order to sustain its space exploration programs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ornl.gov/news/nuclear-deep-space-travel |title=Nuclear–Deep space travel |last=Ellis |first=Ellis |website=www.ornl.gov |date=January 8, 2019 |access-date=February 5, 2019}}</ref>

==Areas of research==
ORNL conducts [[research and development]] activities that span a wide range of scientific disciplines. Many research areas have a significant overlap with each other; researchers often work in two or more of the fields listed here. The laboratory's major research areas are described briefly below.
* [[Chemistry|Chemical sciences]]: ORNL conducts both fundamental and applied research in numerous areas, including [[catalysis]], [[surface science]] and [[surface chemistry|interfacial chemistry]]; molecular transformations and fuel chemistry; heavy element chemistry and radioactive materials characterization; aqueous solution chemistry and [[geochemistry]]; [[mass spectrometry]] and laser spectroscopy; separations chemistry; materials chemistry including synthesis and characterization of [[polymers]] and other soft materials; chemical biosciences; and [[neutron scattering|neutron science]].
* [[Electron microscope|Electron microscopy]]: the program investigates key issues in [[Condensed matter physics|condensed matter]], [[materials science|materials]], chemical and [[nanotechnology|nanosciences]].
* [[Nuclear medicine]]: research is focused on the development of improved reactor production and processing methods to provide medical [[radiopharmacology|radioisotopes]], the development of new radionuclide generator systems, the design and evaluation of new radiopharmaceuticals for applications in nuclear medicine, and [[oncology]].
* [[Physics]]: research is focused primarily on studies of the fundamental properties of [[matter]] at the [[atom]]ic, [[atomic nucleus|nuclear]], and [[subatomic particle|subnuclear]] levels and the development of experimental devices in support of these studies.
* Population: ORNL provides federal, state and international organizations with a gridded population database, called Landscan,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/landscan |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214080907/http://www.ornl.gov/landscan |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 14, 2012 |title=LandScan Home |publisher=Ornl.gov |access-date=July 14, 2012 }}</ref> for estimating ambient population. LandScan is a [[Raster graphics|raster image]], or grid, of population counts, which provides human population estimates every 30 x 30 arc seconds, which translates roughly to population estimates for 1 kilometer square windows or grid cells at the Equator, with cell width decreasing at higher latitudes.<ref>LandScan Home, [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan/ ornl.gov]</ref> Though many population datasets exist, LandScan is the best spatial population dataset, updated annually. Landscan data are accessible through [[GIS]] applications and a [[USAID]] public domain application called Population Explorer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.populationexplorer.com/ |title=Populationexplorer.com |publisher=Populationexplorer.com |access-date=July 14, 2012}}</ref>

===Energy===
The laboratory has a long history of energy research; nuclear reactor experiments have been conducted since the end of World War II in 1945. Because of the availability of reactors and high-performance computing resources, an emphasis on improving the efficiency of nuclear reactors is present.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fcid.shtml |title=Fuel Cycle and Isotopes Division |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201091901/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fcid.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="rnsd">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/rnsd/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521030833/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/rnsd/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 21, 2011 |title=Reactor and Nuclear Systems Division |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 }}</ref> The programs develop more efficient materials, more accurate simulations of aging reactor cores, sensors and controls as well as safety procedures for regulatory authorities.<ref name=rnsd/>

The Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program aims to improve [[Air pollution in the United States|air quality in the US]] and reduce dependence on foreign oil supplies.<ref name="eetp">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/ees/factsheets/fs_eere.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816060313/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/ees/factsheets/fs_eere.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 16, 2007 |title=Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program Fact Sheet |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 }}</ref> There are three key areas of research: electricity, manufacturing and mobility. The electricity division focuses on reducing electricity consumption and finding alternative sources for production. Buildings, which account for 39% of US electricity consumption as of 2012, are a key area of research as the program aims to create affordable, [[carbon-neutral]] homes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_building.shtml |title=Program Areas – Building Technologies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref> Research also takes place into higher efficiency [[Solar panel|solar panels]], [[Geothermal power|geothermal electricity]] and [[Geothermal heating|heating]], lower cost [[Wind turbine|wind generators]], and the economic and environmental feasibility of potential [[Hydroelectricity|hydro power plants]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_wind_hydro.shtml |title=Wind & Water Power Program |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_geothermal.shtml |title=Geothermal Technologies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/eere/research_solar.shtml |title=Solar Energy Technologies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref>

The Fusion Energy Division pursues short-term goals to develop components such as [[High-temperature superconductivity|high-temperature superconductors]], high-speed hydrogen pellet injectors, and suitable materials for future fusion research.<ref name="ornlfus">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/factsheets/fs_fusion_energy.pdf |title=Fusion Energy Division Fact Sheet |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512172630/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/factsheets/fs_fusion_energy.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="fed">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fed.shtml |title=Fusion Energy Division |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201091912/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nsed/division_fed.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Much research into the behaviour and maintenance of plasma takes place at the Fusion Energy Division to further the understanding of [[Plasma (physics)|plasma physics]], a crucial area for developing a fusion power plant.<ref name=ornlfus/><ref name=fed/> The US [[ITER]] office is at ORNL with partners at [[Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory]] and [[Savannah River National Laboratory]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usiter.org/about/ |title=About US ITER |publisher=[[ITER|US ITER]] |access-date=February 6, 2013 |archive-date=June 20, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620111704/https://www.usiter.org/about/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The US contribution to the ITER project is 9.1% which is expected to be in excess of US$1.6&nbsp;billion throughout the contract.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8103557.stm |title=Fusion falters under soaring costs |last=McGrath |first=Matt |date=June 17, 2009 |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iter.org/procurementsharing |title=ITER Procurement Sharing |publisher=[[ITER]] |access-date=February 6, 2013}}</ref> ORNL researchers participated in developing of an extensive research plan for the US-ITER collaboration detailed in 2022.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |title=Report of the US ITER Research Program Research Needs Workshop |eprint=2303.12094 |last1=Greenfield |first1=Charles |last2=Collins |first2=Cami |author3=Workshop Participants|year=2023 |class=physics.plasm-ph }}</ref>

===Biology===
Biological research covers [[ecology]], [[forestry]],<ref name="NSF NEON 2019">{{cite web | title=Oak Ridge NEON — Open Data to Understand our Ecosystems | website=NSF NEON | date=2019| url=https://www.neonscience.org/field-sites/ornl | access-date=October 16, 2023}}</ref> [[genomics]], [[computational biology]], [[structural biology]] and [[bioinformatics]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/biological_systems.shtml |title=Biological systems |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118062451/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/biological_systems.shtml |archive-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The BioEnergy Program aims to improve the efficiency of all stages of the [[biofuel]] process to improve the [[energy security]] of the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/role.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155740/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/role.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Our Role |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> The program aims to make genetic improvements to the potential biomass used,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biofeedstocks.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155746/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biofeedstocks.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Biofeedstocks |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> formulate methods for refineries that can accept a diverse range of fuels, and to improve the efficiency of energy delivery both to power plants and end users.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biorefineries.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155801/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_biorefineries.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Refineries |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_product.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155738/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/bioenergy/research_product.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2010 |title=BioEnergy Program – Product Delivery |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref>

The Center for Molecular Biophysics conducts research into the behaviour of biological molecules in various conditions. The center hosts projects that examine [[cell walls]] for biofuel production,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/bioenergy |title=Biophysical origins of biomass recalcitrance to hydrolysis |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013}}</ref> use neutron scattering to analyse [[protein folding]], and simulate the effect of catalysis on a conventional and [[Quantum mechanics|quantum scale]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/mera-merb |title=Enzymatic Mechanisms of MerA and MerB |last=Parks |first=Jerry M. |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216071710/http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/mera-merb |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/cels |title=Catalytic Mechanism of Cellobiohydrolase, CelS, on Cellulose Degradation |last=Saharay |first=Moumita |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216081324/http://cmb.ornl.gov/research/enzyme-catalysis/cels |url-status=dead }}</ref> ORNL is home to a field site for the [[National Ecological Observatory Network]] (NEON), which has a field office nearby. The Department of Energy works closely with the [[Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency]] out of ORNL to monitor forest ecology for the surrounding Appalachians & Cumberland Plateau Domain of NEON.<ref name="NSF NEON 2019" />

===Neutron science===
There are two neutron sources at ORNL; the [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] (HFIR) and the [[Spallation Neutron Source]] (SNS). HFIR provides neutrons in a stable beam resulting from a constant [[research reactor|nuclear reaction]] whereas SNS, a particle accelerator, produces pulses of neutrons.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/about/ |title=Neutrons at ORNL |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 21, 2013}}</ref><ref name="ORELA">{{Cite web |url=http://www.phy.ornl.gov/nuclear/orela/ |title=The Oak Ridge Electron Linear Accelerator Pulsed Neutron Source |last=Koehler |first=P. E. |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 21, 2013}}</ref> HFIR went [[Critical mass|critical]] in 1965 and has been used for materials research and as a major source of medical radioisotopes since.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/facilities/HFIR/ |title=The High Flux Isotope Reactor at ORNL |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 21, 2013}}</ref> As of 2013, HFIR provides the world's highest constant [[neutron flux]] as a result of various upgrades.<ref name=neutrev/> [[Berkelium]]-249, used to synthesize [[tennessine]] for the first time, was produced in the HFIR as part of an international effort.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/news_items/news_100407.shtml |title=International team discovers element 117 |last=Cabage |first=Bill |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214052516/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/news_items/news_100407.shtml |archive-date=December 14, 2012 |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> HFIR is likely to operate until approximately 2060 before the [[reactor pressure vessel]] is considered unsafe for continued use.<ref name="knoxhfir">{{Cite web |last=Munger |first=Frank |date=May 8, 2012 |title=ORNL's High Flux Isotope Reactor may be last reactor to convert to low-enriched fuel |url=http://blogs.knoxnews.com/munger/2012/05/will-ornls-high-flux-isotope-r.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416040110/http://blogs.knoxnews.com/munger/2012/05/will-ornls-high-flux-isotope-r.html |archive-date=April 16, 2013 |access-date=January 21, 2013 |publisher=Knox News}}</ref>

The SNS has the highest intensity neutron pulses of any human-made neutron source.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/facilities/SNS/ |title=Spallation Neutron Source |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126010612/http://neutrons.ornl.gov/facilities/SNS/ |archive-date=January 26, 2013 |access-date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref> SNS was made operational in 2006 and has since been upgraded to 1&nbsp;megawatt with plans to continue up to 3&nbsp;MW.<ref name="neutrev">{{Cite web |url=http://neutrons.ornl.gov/media/pubs/pdf/2010neutronreview.pdf |title=Neutron Review |date=April 2011 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016153020/http://neutrons.ornl.gov/media/pubs/pdf/2010neutronreview.pdf |archive-date=October 16, 2014 |access-date=January 22, 2013}}</ref> High-power neutron pulses permit clearer images of the targets, meaning smaller samples can be analysed and accurate results require fewer pulses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090929181816.htm |title=Spallation Neutron Source First of Its Kind To Reach Megawatt Power |date=October 1, 2009 |website=Science Daily |access-date=January 22, 2013}}</ref>

===Materials===
[[File:Advanced Microscopy Laboratory (49941605241).png|thumb|The Advanced Microscopy Laboratory at ORNL]]
Between 2002 and 2008 ORNL partnered with [[Caterpillar Inc.]] to form a new material for their diesel engines that can withstand large temperature fluctuations.<ref name="CF8C">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/cf8cplus/pdf/09-G01217_Steel.pdf |title=New Steel Advances Engine Exhaust System |date=February 2010 |publisher=US Department of Energy |access-date=January 19, 2013 |archive-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224034035/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/cf8cplus/pdf/09-G01217_Steel.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The new steel, named CF8C Plus, is based on conventional CF8C stainless steel with added [[manganese]] and [[nitrogen]]; the result has better high–temperature properties and is easier to cast at a similar cost.<ref name=CF8C/> In 2003 the partners received an R&D 100 award from ''R&D magazine'' and in 2009 received an award for "excellence in technology transfer" from the [[Federal Laboratory Consortium]] for the commercialisation of the steel.<ref name=CF8C/>

There is a high-temperature materials lab at ORNL that permits researchers from universities, private companies and other government initiatives to use their facilities. As is the case for all designated user facilities, the resources of the High Temperature Materials Laboratory are available for free if the results are published; private research is permitted but requires payment.<ref name="html">{{Cite web |url=http://www.html.ornl.gov/what.shtml |title=What We Do |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 20, 2013 |archive-date=May 10, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510093547/http://www.html.ornl.gov/what.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences (CNMS) researches the behaviour and fabrication of [[nanomaterials]]. The center emphasises discovery of new materials and the understanding of underlying physical and chemical interactions that enable creation of nanomaterials.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cnms.ornl.gov/about_cnms/about_cnms.shtm |title=Science At The CNMS |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013}}</ref> In 2012, CNMS produced a lithium-sulfide battery with a theoretical energy density three to five times greater than existing [[lithium ion batteries]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cnms.ornl.gov/news/Liang_AdvFuncMat_2012.shtm |title=High Energy Lithium-Sulfur Batteries |date=June 2012 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 20, 2013}}</ref>

===Security===
ORNL provides resources to the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] and other defense programs. The Global Security and Nonproliferation (GS&N) program develops and implements policies, both US based and international, to prevent the [[Nuclear proliferation|proliferation of nuclear material]].<ref name="GSN">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/factsheets/GS&N%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |title=Global Security & Nonproliferation Programs Mission Factsheet |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=October 2, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002131323/http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/factsheets/GS%26N%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The program has developed safeguards for nuclear arsenals, guidelines for dismantling arsenals, plans of action should nuclear material fall into unauthorised hands, detection methods for stolen or missing nuclear material, and trade of nuclear material between the US and Russia.<ref name=GSN/> The GS&N's work overlaps with that of the Homeland Security Programs Office, providing detection of nuclear material and nonproliferation guidelines. Other areas concerning the Department Homeland Security include nuclear and radiological forensics, [[Chemical weapon|chemical]] and [[biological agent]] detection using [[mass spectrometry]], and simulations of potential national hazards.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/dhs_compentencies.shtml |title=Department of Homeland Security Programs – Key Competencies |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 23, 2013 |archive-date=January 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101220003/http://www.ornl.gov/adm/directorates/gsd/dhs_compentencies.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===High-performance computing===
[[File:Summit supercomputer (44552257460).jpg|thumb|[[Summit (supercomputer)|Summit]], developed at ORNL, was the world's fastest [[supercomputer]] from November 2018 to June 2020.]]
ORNL has been the site of various [[supercomputer]]s, home to the fastest on several occasions.<ref name="ornlreview45">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v45_3_12/Review_v45n3.pdf |title=ORNL Review Vol. 45 |last1=Brouner |first1=Jennifer |last2=McCorkle |first2=Morgan |year=2012 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |page=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304012345/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v45_3_12/Review_v45n3.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2013 |access-date=November 2, 2012 |last3=Pearce |first3=Jim |last4=Williams |first4=Leo }}</ref> In 1953, ORNL partnered with the [[Argonne National Laboratory]] to build [[ORACLE (computer)|ORACLE]] (Oak Ridge Automatic Computer and Logical Engine), a computer to research nuclear physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.<ref name=timeline/><ref name=ornlreview45 /><ref name="BRL">{{Cite web |url=http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61-o.html#ORACLE |title=BRL Report 1961 |last=Weik |first=Martin H. |website=Army Project No. 5803-06-002 |publisher=Ballistic Research Laboratories |access-date=November 8, 2012}}</ref> ORACLE had 2048&nbsp;[[Word (computer architecture)|words]] (80&nbsp;[[Kibibit|Kibit]]) of [[Random-access memory|memory]] and took approximately 590&nbsp;microseconds to perform addition or multiplication of integers.<ref name=BRL /> In the 1960s ORNL was equipped with an [[IBM System/360|IBM 360/91]] and an IBM 360/65.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x3BiWst3CMC |title=Thermal Transmission Measurements of Insulation: A Symposium |last=Tye |first=R.P. |publisher=American Society for Testing & Materials |year=1978 |isbn=978-0803105898 |page=314 |access-date=February 19, 2013}}</ref> In 1995 ORNL bought an [[Intel Paragon]] based computer called the ''Intel Paragon XP/S 150'' that performed at 154&nbsp;[[FLOPS|gigaFLOPS]] and ranked third on the [[TOP500]] list of supercomputers.<ref name=ornlreview45/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/system/172576 |title=XP/S-MP 150 |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=January 8, 2013}}</ref> In 2005 [[Jaguar (supercomputer)|Jaguar]] was built, a [[Cray XT3]]-based system that performed at 25&nbsp;teraFLOPS and received incremental upgrades up to the [[Cray XT5|XT5]] platform that performed at 2.3&nbsp;petaFLOPS in 2009. It was recognised as the world's fastest from November 2009 until November 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/technology/734453/jaguar_rises_on_top500_listing/ |title='Jaguar' Rises on TOP500 Listing |last=Dunlap |first=Darren |date=November 16, 2006 |work=Knoxville News-Sentinel |access-date=November 9, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://top500.org/lists/2009/11/press-release |title=ORNL's Jaguar Claws its Way to Number One |date=November 13, 2009 |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=November 9, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809021315/http://www.top500.org/lists/2009/11/press-release |archive-date=August 9, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Summit was built for Oak Ridge National Laboratory during 2018, which benchmarked at 122.3 petaFLOPS. As of June 2020, Summit was the world's second fastest [clocked] supercomputer with 202,752 CPU cores, 27,648 [[Nvidia Tesla|Nvidia Tesla GPUs]], and 250 Petabytes of storage, having lost the top position to the Japanese [[Fugaku (supercomputer)|Fugaku]] supercomputer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.top500.org/lists/2018/06/ |title=June 2018 {{!}} TOP500 Supercomputer Sites |website=www.top500.org |language=en |access-date=October 31, 2018}}</ref> In May 2022, the ORNL [[Frontier (supercomputer)|Frontier]] system broke the exascale barrier,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ORNL's Frontier First to Break the Exaflop Ceiling {{!}} TOP500 |url=https://www.top500.org/news/ornls-frontier-first-to-break-the-exaflop-ceiling/ |access-date=2022-09-28 |website=www.top500.org}}</ref> achieving 1.102 exaflop/s using 8,730,112 cores.

Since 1992 the [[National Center for Computational Sciences|Center for Computational Sciences]] has overseen high performance computing at ORNL. It manages the [[Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility]] that contains the machines.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://computing.ornl.gov/nccs.shtml |title=National Center for Computational Sciences |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 19, 2013 |archive-date=January 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125203407/http://computing.ornl.gov/nccs.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2012, Jaguar was upgraded to the [[Cray XK7|XK7]] platform, a fundamental change as [[GPU]]s are used for the majority of processing, and renamed [[Titan (supercomputer)|Titan]]. Titan performed at 17.59&nbsp;petaFLOPS and held the number 1 spot on the TOP500 list for November 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/blog/lists/2012/11/press-release/ |title=Oak Ridge Claims No. 1 Position on Latest [TOP500] List with Titan |date=November 12, 2012 |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=November 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121075914/http://top500.org/blog/lists/2012/11/press-release/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other computers include a 77 node cluster to visualise data that the larger machines output in the ''Exploratory Visualization Environment for Research in Science and Technology'' (EVEREST), a visualisation room with a 10 by 3&nbsp;metre (30 by 10&nbsp;ft) wall that displays 35&nbsp;megapixel projections.<ref name="everest">{{Cite web |url=http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2013/jan/01/ornl-visualization-lab-gets-25m-makeover-adds-3d/ |title=ORNL visualization lab gets $2.5M makeover, adds 3D |last=Munger |first=Frank |date=January 1, 2013 |publisher=Knox News |access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.olcf.ornl.gov/computing-resources/lens/ |title=Lens |publisher=[[Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility]] |access-date=January 19, 2013 |archive-date=January 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102044635/http://www.olcf.ornl.gov/computing-resources/lens/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Smoky is an 80 node Linux cluster used for application development. Research projects are refined and tested on Smoky before running on larger machines such as Titan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.olcf.ornl.gov/computing-resources/smoky/ |title=Smoky |publisher=[[Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility]] |access-date=January 19, 2013}}</ref>

In 1989 programmers at the Oak Ridge National Lab wrote the first version of [[Parallel Virtual Machine]] (PVM), software that enables [[distributed computing]] on machines of differing specifications.<ref>{{Cite web |url=ftp://ftp.jlab.org/pub/coda/docs/pdf/manuals/pvm_guide.pdf |title=PVM 3 User's Guide and Reference Manual |date=September 1994 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |page=1 |access-date=November 10, 2012}}</ref> PVM is [[free software]] and has become the de facto standard for distributed computing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine |url=https://www.csm.ornl.gov/pvm/ |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=www.csm.ornl.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csm.ornl.gov/pvm/ |title=PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine |date=December 5, 2011 |publisher=Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321103208/http://www.parawiki.org/index.php?title=Parallel_Virtual_Machine&redirect=no |archive-date=March 21, 2007 |access-date=November 10, 2012 }}</ref> [[Jack Dongarra]] of ORNL and the [[University of Tennessee]] wrote the [[LINPACK]] software library and [[LINPACK benchmarks]], used to calculate [[linear algebra]] and the standard method of measuring floating point performance of a supercomputer as used by the TOP500 organisation.<ref name=ornlreview45/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/project/linpack |title=The Linpack Benchmark |publisher=[[TOP500]] |access-date=November 10, 2012}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
{{cmn|
*[[Elda Emma Anderson]]
*[[Manson Benedict]]
*[[Leslie Benmark]]
*[[Jane Blankenship]]
*[[Everitt P. Blizard]]
*[[Lyle Benjamin Borst]]
*[[Hermann Bottenbruch]]
*[[Marilyn A. Brown]]
*[[Thure E. Cerling]]
*[[Robert Coveyou]]
*[[Sheldon Datz]]
*[[Jack Dongarra]]
*[[John H. Ebersole]]
*[[Julie Ezold]]
*[[John H. Gibbons (scientist)|John H. Gibbons]]
*[[Amit Goyal]]
*[[Eugene Guth]]
*[[Michael Heath (computer scientist)|Michael Heath]]
*[[Linda Horton]]
*[[Alston Scott Householder]]
*[[Chun-Hway Hsueh]]
*[[George Samuel Hurst]]
*[[Mujaddid Ahmed Ijaz]]
*[[Sergei V. Kalinin]]
*[[William Rudolph Kanne]]
*[[Cresson Kearny]]
*[[Tamara G. Kolda]]
*[[Clarence Larson]]
*[[Henri A. Levy]]
*[[Dan Lindsley]]
*[[Herbert G. MacPherson]]
*[[William Madia]]
*[[Thomas Mason (physicist)|Thomas Mason]]
*[[Jim May (chemical engineer)|Jim May]]
*[[Dade Moeller]]
*[[G. William Morgan]]
*[[Karl Z. Morgan]]
*[[Stephen E. Nagler]]
*[[Jagdish Narayan]]
*[[Peter Nellist]]
*[[C. Maurice Patterson]]
*[[Clarice Phelps]]
*[[Frances Pleasonton]]
*[[Ward Plummer]]
*[[Herman Postma]]
*[[Red Raper]]
*[[Hyman G. Rickover]]
*[[Larry Robinson (chemist)|Larry Robinson]]
*[[Amy Rosemond]]
*[[Liane Russell]]
*[[Clifford Shull]]
*[[Dorothy Martin Simon]]
*[[David Joseph Singh]]
*[[Nicholas M. Smith Jr.]]
*[[Olaf Storaasli]]
*[[Stephen Streiffer]]
*[[Jan B. Talbot]]
*[[Arpad Vass]]
*[[Alvin M. Weinberg]]
*[[Eugene Wigner]]
*[[Ernest O. Wollan]]
*[[Ying Xu]]
*[[Herbert York]]
*[[Gale J. Young]]
*[[Thomas Zacharia]]
*[[Paula Cable-Dunlap]]}}

==See also==
* [[American Museum of Science and Energy]]
* [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]]
* [[Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences]]
* [[K-25|K-25 Gaseous Diffusion Plant]]
* [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]
* [[National Transportation Research Center]]
* [[Pacific Northwest National Laboratory]]
* [[Sandia National Laboratory]]
* [[Spallation Neutron Source]]
* [[Thorium Energy Alliance]]
* [[United States Department of Energy national laboratories|United States Department of Energy National Laboratories and Technology Centers]]
* [[USS Oak Ridge|USS ''Oak Ridge'']], commissioned in 1944

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Lindsey A. Freeman (2015), ''[https://uncpress.org/book/9781469622378/longing-for-the-bomb/ Longing for the Bomb: Oak Ridge and Atomic Nostalgia]''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. {{isbn|978-1-4696-2237-8}}.

==External links==
{{commons category|Oak Ridge National Laboratory}}
* {{official website|https://www.ornl.gov/}}
* [http://www.technicalreports.org/trail/search/?q=issuing_agency%3AOak+issuing_agency%3ARidge+issuing_agency%3ANational+issuing_agency%3ALaboratory Technical reports issued by Oak Ridge National Laboratory] digitized by [[Technical Report Archive & Image Library]]

{{U.S. National Labs}}
{{Manhattan Project}}
{{University of Tennessee, Knoxville}}

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