View source for National Flood Insurance Program

{{Organization
|OrganizationName=National Flood Insurance Program
|OrganizationType=Government Corporations (Sub-organization)
|Mission=National Flood Insurance Program cuts flood impact with insurance and floodplain management for community recovery.
|ParentOrganization=Federal Emergency Management Agency
|TopOrganization=Department of Homeland Security
|CreationLegislation=National Flood Insurance Act of 1968
|OrganizationExecutive=Administrator of FEMA
|Services=Flood Insurance; Floodplain Management; Community Rating System
|Regulations=44 CFR Part 60 (Floodplain Management Criteria); 44 CFR Part 61 (Insurance Coverage and Rates)
|HeadquartersLocation=38.89509, -77.0287
|Website=https://www.fema.gov/flood-insurance
}}
{{Short description|US Federal insurance program}}
{{Redirect|NFIP|the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis|March of Dimes}}

The '''National Flood Insurance Program''' (NFIP) is a program created by the [[Congress of the United States]] in 1968 through the [[National Flood Insurance Act of 1968]] (P.L. 90-448). The NFIP has two purposes: to share the risk of flood losses through [[flood insurance]] and to reduce flood damages by restricting floodplain development. The program enables property owners in participating communities to purchase [[insurance]] protection, administered by the government, against losses from [[flood|flooding]], and requires flood insurance for all loans or lines of credit that are secured by existing buildings, manufactured homes, or buildings under construction, that are located in the [[Special Flood Hazard Area]] in a community that participates in the NFIP. U.S. Congress limits the availability of National Flood Insurance to communities that adopt adequate land use and control measures with effective enforcement provisions to reduce flood damages by restricting development in areas exposed to flooding.

Flood insurance was generally provided by private insurers beginning in 1895, but after the [[Great Mississippi Flood of 1927]], most private insurers concluded that flood risk was [[Insurability|uninsurable]] at a price that consumers could afford given the catastrophic nature of flooding, as well as difficulties in creating accurate [[risk assessment]]s for [[Insurance policy|policy]] pricing and risks of [[adverse selection]].{{sfn|Horn|Webel|2023|p=10}}

The NFIP is managed and administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) through the Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration (FIMA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/homesec/R44593.pdf |website=fas.org |access-date=4 February 2022 |page=1 |date=November 19, 2021 |quote=The NFIP is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), through its subcomponent the Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration (FIMA).}}</ref> The program is designed to provide an insurance alternative to disaster assistance to meet the escalating costs of repairing damage to buildings and their contents caused by floods.<ref>{{cite web| author=Federal Emergency Management Agency |title=A Unified National Program for Floodplain Management |date=March 1986 |url=http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1503-20490-9177/fema100.pdf |access-date=2014-11-08}}</ref> As of August 2017, the program insured about 5 million homes (down from about 5.5 million homes in April 2010), the majority of which are in Texas and Florida.<ref name=WSJHurricaneHarvey>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/hurricane-harvey-threatens-largest-flood-insurer-1503771686 |title=Hurricane Harvey Threatens Largest Flood Insurer: The Government |first1=Rachel |last1=Witkowski |first2=Leslie |last2=Scism |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |date=2017-08-26 |access-date=2017-10-28}}</ref><ref name="Holladay2010">Holladay JS, Schwartz JA. (2010). [http://www.policyintegrity.org/documents/FloodingtheMarket.pdf Flooding the Market: The Distributional Consequences of the NFIP]. Institute for Policy Integrity.</ref> The cost of the insurance program was fully covered by its premiums until the end of 2004, but it has had to steadily borrow funds since, primarily due to [[Hurricane Katrina]] and [[Hurricane Sandy]], accumulating $25 billion of debt by August 2017.<ref name=WSJHurricaneHarvey /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21727898-if-global-warming-were-not-enough-threat-poor-planning-and-unwise-subsidies-make-floods|title=How government policy exacerbates hurricanes like Harvey|newspaper=The Economist|date=2 September 2017|access-date=2017-09-06}}</ref> In October 2017, Congress cancelled $16 billion of NFIP debt, making it possible for the program to pay claims. The NFIP owes $20.525 billion to the U.S. as of December 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/homesec/IN10784.pdf|title=National Flood Insurance Program Borrowing Authority |website=fas.org |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=2 February 2022 |page=3}}</ref>

==Floodplain definition==
[[File:RedRiverGrandForks1997.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial view of flood water throughout the town of Grand Forks, North Dakota| 1997 Red River Flood in Grand Forks, North Dakota, was a 100-year flood.]]
[[File:Sketch of floodplain floodway and flood fringe.svg|thumb|alt=Perspective sketch of floodplain with four shades of blue for channel, floodway, flood fringe, and 500-year floodplain. Cross sections show fill in flood fringe does not increase the 100-year flood level more than one foot but fill in floodway does. |The carrying capacity of a floodway must be preserved so that the 100-year flood level does not increase by more than one foot.]]

The [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] (FEMA) defines the ''[[floodplain]]'' as the area that would be flooded by a ''base flood'',<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec9-4.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 9.4]</ref> which is "the flood which has a one percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year". In this sense, a ''base flood'' is synonymous with a ''[[100-year flood]]'' and a ''floodplain'' is synonymous with a ''[[special flood hazard area]]''. This ''base flood'' "is used in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) to indicate the minimum level of flooding to be used by a community in its floodplain management regulations."<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec59-1.pdf 44 CFR § 59.1]</ref> FEMA explains regulatory floodplains in some places including hills as "critical determinations are made by evaluating your community’s rainfall and river flow data, topography, wind velocity, tidal surge, [[flood control]] measures, building development (existing and planned) and community maps."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.floodsmart.gov/faqs |title= Why You Need Flood Insurance, Risk Assessments  |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=FEMA |access-date=April 23, 2019}}</ref>

Scientists and engineers use statistical analysis of streamflow data to determine the likelihood of flood elevations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/70/|title=National Streamflow Information Program|website=pubs.usgs.gov |publisher=USGS |access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref> Theoretically a 100-year flood has a 1 percent chance (1/100 = 0.01 or 1 percent) of occurring in any given year and a 500-year flood has as a 0.2 percent chance (1/500 = 0.002 or 0.2 percent) of occurring in any given year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/1543a/report.pdf |title=Manual of Hydrology: Part 3. Flood-Flow Techniques |last1=Dalrymple|first1=Tate |website=pubs.usgs.gov |publisher=USGS |access-date=February 2, 2022}}</ref> However, these expected flood elevations actually occur more or less often than expected.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/106/pdf/100-year-flood_041210.pdf |title=100-Year Flood–It's All About Chance |last1=Holmes |first1=Robert R. Jr. |last2=Dinicola |first2=Karen |website=pubs.usgs.gov |publisher=USGS |access-date=January 15, 2019}}</ref>

44 CFR § 9.4 defines parts of the floodplain as follows:
* Floodway means that portion of the floodplain which is effective in carrying flow, within which this carrying capacity must be preserved and where the flood hazard is generally highest, i.e., where water depths and velocities are the greatest. It is that area which provides for the discharge of the base flood so the cumulative increase in water surface elevation is no more than one foot.
* Flood Fringe means that portion of the floodplain outside of the floodway (often referred to as "floodway fringe").

== Implementation ==
Participation in the NFIP is based on an agreement between local communities and the federal government that states that if a community will adopt and enforce a floodplain management ordinance to reduce future flood risks to new construction in [[Special Flood Hazard Area]]s (SFHA), the federal government will make flood insurance available within the community as a financial protection against flood losses. The SFHAs and other risk premium zones applicable to each participating community are depicted on [[Flood Insurance Rate Map]]s (FIRMs). The [[Flood mitigation|Mitigation]] Division within FEMA manages the NFIP and oversees the floodplain management and mapping components of the Program.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fears |first1=Darryl |title=The price of living near the shore is already high. It's about to go through the roof. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2021/10/01/price-living-near-shore-is-already-high-its-about-go-through-roof/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 1, 2021}}</ref>

The intent was to reduce future flood damage through community floodplain management ordinances and provide protection for property owners against potential losses through an insurance mechanism that requires a premium to be paid for the protection. In 2003, the [[GAO]] found that repetitive-loss properties cost the program about $200 million annually.<ref name=GOA2003>U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2003). [http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-03-606T Challenges Facing the National Flood Insurance Program]</ref> Congress originally intended that operating expenses and flood insurance claims be paid for through the premiums collected for flood insurance policies.<ref>Wright, James M., The Nation's Response to Flood Disasters: A Historical Account. 1 Apr 2000.</ref> NFIP borrows from the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] for times when losses are heavy, and these loans are paid back with interest.

Between 1978 and 2014, the U.S. federal government paid more than $51 billion in claims under the National Flood Insurance Program.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fema.gov/loss-dollars-paid-calendar-year|title=Loss Dollars Paid by Calendar Year - FEMA.gov|website=www.fema.gov|access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref>

From 2006, the NFIP has been directed by its Senior Executive, [[David Maurstad]]. A former [[Lieutenant Governor of Nebraska]], he also serves as the Deputy Associate Administrator for FEMA's [[List of federal agencies in the United States#Component Agencies|Federal Insurance and Mitigation]] (FIMA) division.<ref>{{cite web |title=Officers & Leadership David I. Maurstad |url=https://www.fema.gov/david-maurstad |website=fema.gov |publisher=FEMA |access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref>

== Amendments ==
The program was first amended by the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, which made the purchase of flood insurance mandatory for the protection of property within SFHAs. In 1982, the Act was amended by the [[Coastal Barrier Resources Act]] (CBRA). The CBRA enacted a set of maps depicting the John H. Chafee Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS) in which federal flood insurance is unavailable for new or significantly improved structures. The [[National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994]] codified the [[Community Rating System]] (an incentive program that encourages communities to exceed the minimal federal requirements for development within floodplains) within the NFIP. The program was further amended by the [[Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004]], with the goal of reducing "losses to properties for which repetitive flood insurance claim payments have been made."<ref>{{cite web |title=Laws and Regulations |url=https://www.fema.gov/flood-insurance/rules-legislation/laws |website=fema.gov |publisher=[[FEMA]] |access-date=4 February 2022}}</ref>

The [[Biggert–Waters Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2012]] (Biggert-Waters) modified the NFIP. At the conclusion of 2011, as Congress passed Biggert-Waters, the NFIP cumulative debt was over $17 billion.<ref name=NRC2015>{{cite book| author=National Research Council of the National Academies |title=Affordability of National Flood Insurance Program Premiums Report 1 |date=2015 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=9780309371254 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/21709/affordability-of-national-flood-insurance-program-premiums-report-1 |access-date=2015-08-20}}</ref> A core principle of Biggert-Waters was to change the NFIP premiums to match actuarial risk-based premiums that better reflected the expected losses and real risk of flooding. These changes included removing discounts to many policies which were being sold below actual actuarial risk targets and eliminating "grandfathering" of older rates.<ref name="NRC2015" /><ref name=TPuhlenbrock>{{cite news|last=Uhlenbrock|first=Kristan|title=Despite Hazard of Sea Level Rise, Senate Halts Flood Insurance Reforms|url=http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/01/31/3230141/senate-flood-insurance/|access-date=31 January 2014|newspaper=ThinkProgress|date=31 January 2014}}</ref>

In March 2014, [[President Obama]] signed the [[Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2013]]. The bill changed the process used to alter subsidized premiums and reinstated grandfathering of lower rates; effectively delaying the increases in flood insurance premiums to obtain risk-based premiums under Biggert-Waters and spreading the cost of the lost premiums over all of the remaining policy holders.<ref name="NRC2015" /><ref name=ferraroReuters>{{cite news|last=Ferraro|first=Thomas|title=U.S. Senate passes bill to delay hikes in flood insurance rates|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-insurance-flooding-idUSBREA0T1WK20140130|access-date=31 January 2014|newspaper=Reuters|date=30 January 2014}}</ref><ref name=1926sum>{{cite web|title=S. 1926 – Summary|date=31 January 2014|url=http://beta.congress.gov/bill/113th/senate-bill/1926|publisher=United States Congress|access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref>

The National Flood Insurance Program was $24 billion in debt at the beginning of 2014 as a result of Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Sandy. The passage of the HFIAA described above has concerned insurance and environmental observers that the delay in implementation of actuarial rates will leave taxpayers exposed to additional losses.<ref name="TPuhlenbrock" />

== Floodplain status determination ==

=== Letter of Map Amendment<!-- [[Loma]] links to this heading --> ===

Insufficient map topographic detail or accuracy can result in the unwarranted determination of Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). An application for a Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA) uses an Elevation Certificate (prepared by a Registered Land Surveyor or Registered Professional Engineer) to ask FEMA to remove the flood insurance requirement on individual properties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fema.gov/floodplain-management/letter-map-amendment-loma|title=Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA) |publisher=FEMA |website=www.fema.gov|access-date=27 February 2018}}</ref>

===Online Letter of map change===

FEMA's website "Change a Flood Zone Designation – Online Letter of Map Change" says homeowners and other interested parties may submit an Online Letter of Map Change (LOMC). FEMA says this can be used for property that was incorrectly included in a flood zone or if the addition of fill has elevated the property above the flood zone. Information on the property's location, legal description, and use of fill are required for FEMA to determine if the property is located in a flood zone. FEMA might request additional information.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fema.gov/change-flood-zone-designation-online-letter-map-change |title=Change a Flood Zone Designation – Online Letter of Map Change |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=November 30, 2018 |publisher=FEMA |website=fema.gov |access-date=January 15, 2019}}</ref>

=== Letter of Map Revision ===

For multiple properties or a larger area, an application for a Letter of Map Revision <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fema.gov/national-flood-insurance-program-2/letter-map-revision|title=Letter of Map Revision |publisher=FEMA |website=www.fema.gov}}</ref> can be submitted when the landscape topography is different from that shown on the floodplain boundary and/or flood heights shown on the FIRM and the Flood Insurance Study. A Letter of Map Revision based on Fill (LOMR-F) is used when landscape topography is altered by humans, usually to increase the land elevation and remove land from the floodplain. A Conditional Letter of Map Revision (CLOMR) and Conditional Letter of Map Revision Based on Fill (CLOMR-F) are strongly advised as a mechanism to obtain FEMA feedback on the project before site changes are made, especially in light of the increasing attention on the nexus between the NFIP and the Endangered Species Act.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fema.gov/national-flood-insurance-program-endangered-species-act|title=National Flood Insurance Program & the Endangered Species Act |publisher=FEMA |website=www.fema.gov}}</ref> 44 C.F.R. § 65.6(10) says "A revision of flood plain delineations based on topographic changes must demonstrate that any topographic changes have not resulted in a floodway encroachment."

====Proposed encroachments====

FEMA says that justifiable encroachment within the floodplain might include "construction or modification of a bridge, culvert, levee, or similar measure".<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec72-1.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 72.1]</ref> The NFIP prohibits communities to issue variances "within any designated regulatory floodway if any increase in flood levels during the base flood discharge would result".<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec60-6.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 60.6(a)(1)]</ref> However, a community may request FEMA's prior approval for a justifiable encroachment that would increase the base flood level. This community request must include seven required submittals such as a request for conditional approval of map change, an evaluation of alternatives, a request for revision of base flood elevation determination, and a request for floodway revision.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec65-12.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 65.12(a)]</ref> All requests for revision of base flood elevations must include supporting data with "all the information FEMA needs to review and evaluate the request. This may involve the requestor’s performing new hydrologic and hydraulic analysis and delineation of new flood plain boundaries and floodways, as necessary."<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec65-6.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 65.6(a)(1)]</ref> Details of the required supporting data are listed in [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec65-7.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 65.7].

====Outdated flood maps====

[[File:FEMA chance of flooding over 30 year period.jpg|thumb|alt=Computer generated flood analysis shows chance of flooding over a 30-year period overlaid on aerial photo of a city. A wide area of reds and oranges shading upstream of an encroachment of the valley indicates more flood potential than downstream of the restriction.|Computer models overlay current hydraulic analysis on community images.]]
The U.S. Geological Survey says increased runoff resulting from urban growth generally increases flood hazards to communities and that flood hazard maps based on data before urban growth may no longer be accurate.<ref name=USGSUrbanDevFlood>{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs07603/pdf/fs07603.pdf |title=Effects of Urban Development on Floods |last=Konrad |first=Christopher P. |date=November 2003 |website=pubs.usgs.gov |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=February 10, 2019 }}</ref>{{rp |4}} The U.S. Geological Survey gives the example that construction encroaching into the floodplain narrows the floodplain width thereby increasing the resistance to flow. Consequently, the water is at a higher stage as it flows past the construction causing [[Backwater (river)|backwater]] to flood a larger area upstream.<ref name=USGSUrbanDevFlood/>{{rp |2}} FEMA's computer model image shown here "represents the percent chance of flooding at least one time during a 30-year period for a given cell, or location, within the mapped floodplain".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1523562952942-4c54fdae20779bb004857f1915236e6c/Flood_Depth_and_Analysis_Grids_Guidance_Feb_2018.pdf#page=35 |title=Guidance for Flood Risk Analysis and Mapping, Flood Depth and Analysis Grids |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=February 2018 |publisher=FEMA |access-date=February 10, 2019}}</ref>

====Updating flood maps====

NFIP regulation "Requirement to submit new technical data" says "A community’s base flood elevations may increase or decrease resulting from physical changes affecting flooding conditions. As soon as practicable, but not later than six months after the date such information becomes available, a community shall notify the Administrator of the changes by submitting technical or scientific data in accordance with this part. Such a submission is necessary so that upon confirmation of those physical changes affecting flooding conditions, risk premium rates and flood plain management requirements will be based upon current data."<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec65-3.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 65.3]</ref> FEMA requires "Copies of the input and output data from the original and revised hydraulic analyses shall be submitted" with the hydraulic analysis supporting revisions to flood maps.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec65-6.pdf 44 CFR § 65.6(a)(8)]</ref> A 2015 FEMA website identifies that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) [[HEC-RAS|Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS)]] computer program has been adopted for the preparation of studies and restudies for the NFIP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fema.gov/floodplain-modeling-manual-hydrologic-engineering-center-river-analysis-system-procedures-hec-2 |title=Floodplain Modeling Manual: Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System Procedures for HEC-2 Modelers |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=August 18, 2015 |publisher=FEMA |access-date=April 25, 2019}}</ref>

==Land use restrictions in floodplains==
[[File:FEMA downtown Cedar Rapids Iowa flood 2008.jpg|thumb|alt=Flood water of Cedar River is over several main street bridges and up to the windows of several public buildings such as the courthouse and city hall. |A [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa#Flood of 2008|2008 flood in Cedar Rapids]], Iowa, exceeded the 500-year flood level and damaged public buildings.]]

===Findings===
The U.S. Congress finds annual flood losses are "increasing at an alarming rate" and forms of Federal assistance "are often determining factors in the utilization of land and the location and construction of public and of private industrial, commercial, and residential facilities". The purpose for such Federal assistance is frustrated where Federal assistance is exposed to flood risks.<ref>{{USC|42|4002}}</ref> A U.S. District Court finds that FEMA determinations of which properties are within the regulatory floodplain affects the location of development:

{{block quote|However, just as the transportation agency in ''NWF v. Coleman'' controlled the placement of the highway and interchanges, FEMA designates the boundaries of the floodplains on flood maps. Both of these actions affect the location of development. Whether or not FEMA funds the NFIP, in whole or in part, is immaterial because it is undisputed that FEMA is the federal agency charged with administering the NFIP and that is sufficient to qualify as an "agency action." In neither the present case nor ''NWF v. Coleman'' does the action agency authorize, permit, or carry out the actual development that causes the harm to the species' habitat; however, in both cases, development is "reasonably certain to occur" as a result of the agency's action.<ref name=NWFvFEMA2004>{{cite court |litigants=National Wildlife Federation v. FEMA |vol=345 |reporter=F. Supp. 2d |opinion=1151 |court=W.D. Wash. |date=2004 |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=13873190201741843062 |access-date=January 13, 2019}}</ref>{{rp |1176}}}}

===U.S. Codes===

The U.S. Code (USC) codification of the Public Law where Congress established the NFIP<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2017-title42/pdf/USCODE-2017-title42-chap50-sec4001.pdf 42 U.S.C. § 4001(e)]</ref> in the section "Congressional findings and declaration of purpose" includes:
{{blockquote|It is the further purpose of this chapter to (1) encourage State and local governments to make appropriate land use adjustments to constrict the development of land which is exposed to flood damage and minimize damage caused by flood losses,
(2) guide the development of proposed future construction, where practicable, away from locations which are threatened by flood hazards}}

National Flood Insurance is limited to communities that adopted adequate [[Zoning#United States|land use and control measures]] with effective enforcement provisions consistent with these purposes.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2017-title42/pdf/USCODE-2017-title42-chap50-subchapI-sec4022.pdf 42 U.S.C. § 4022(a)(1)] and [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2017-title42/pdf/USCODE-2017-title42-chap50-subchapIII-sec4102.pdf 42 U.S.C. § 4102(c)]</ref> The USC section "Additional Congressional findings and declaration of purpose" says "property acquired or constructed with grants or other Federal assistance may be exposed to risk of loss through floods, thus frustrating the purpose for which such assistance was extended".<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2017-title42/pdf/USCODE-2017-title42-chap50-sec4002.pdf 42 U.S.C. § 4002(a)(3)]</ref> This USC further says "The purpose of this Act, therefore, is to ... require States or local communities, as a condition of future Federal financial assistance, to participate in the flood insurance program and to adopt adequate flood plan ordinances with effective enforcement provisions consistent with Federal standards to reduce or avoid future flood losses".<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2017-title42/pdf/USCODE-2017-title42-chap50-sec4002.pdf 42 U.S.C. § 4002(b)(3)]</ref> The specific prohibition is in the USC section "Prohibition against Federal approval of financial assistance" that says "No Federal officer or agency shall approve any financial assistance for acquisition or construction purposes on and after July 1, 1975, for use in any area that has been identified by the Administrator as an area having special flood hazards unless the community in which such area is situated is then participating in the national flood insurance program."<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2017-title42/pdf/USCODE-2017-title42-chap50-subchapIII-sec4106.pdf 42 U.S.C. § 4106(a)]</ref>

===Code of Federal Regulations===
FEMA created a regulation that identifies the minimum flood plain management criteria for communities<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec60-3.pdf 44 CFR § 60.3]</ref> including the following:
* utilize base flood elevation and floodway data
* require permits for all development in Zone A
* determine whether proposed developments will be reasonably safe from flooding
* determine that all necessary permits have been received from Federal and State government agencies, including [[United States Army Corps of Engineers#Environmental protection and regulatory program|section 404 permits]] of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
* require within flood-prone areas that new and replacement water supply systems to be designed to minimize or eliminate infiltration of flood waters into the systems
* require within flood-prone areas that new and replacement sanitary sewage systems to be designed to minimize or eliminate infiltration of flood waters into the systems and to minimize or eliminate discharges from the systems into flood waters
* require within flood-prone areas that onsite waste disposal systems to be located to avoid impairment to them or contamination from them during flooding
* notify adjacent communities prior to any alteration or relocation of a watercourse
* determine that the flood carrying capacity within the altered or relocated portion of any watercourse is maintained
* require that manufactured homes must be elevated and anchored to resist flotation, collapse, or lateral movement
The Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) "Suspension of community eligibility" says communities that do not adequately enforce flood plain management regulations meeting the minimum requirements shall be placed on probation. Failure to correct the violation will result in the community losing eligibility for the NFIP.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec59-24.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 59.24]</ref>

====Optional stricter standards====
[[File:Underground Storage Tank floated out of ground by flood.jpg|thumb|alt=An underground storage tank about the size of a small car has come up out of the ground breaking the pavement that used to cover it.|[[Buoyancy|Buoyant]] forces during floods can cause underground storage tanks to float out of the ground.]]
[[File:Combined Stormwater Sewage Overflow in Roswell Georgia September 2009.jpg|thumb|alt=Dirty water spurting up a couple of feed from a sewage manhole. |When flood water enters sewers, the sewage gets released to the environment.]]
[[File:Koch pipeline spill 1994 Texas.png |thumb|alt=Oil stains river bank about ten feet above stream level. People in protective white suits have placed white absorbent boom to catch oil in stream. | Flood water carried oil from a pipeline break into the floodplain beyond normal stream level.]]
[[File:P5med.jpg|thumb|alt=Dirty flood water rushing through the roadway of a bridge.|Flood water making bridge impassable]]

The NFIP encourages communities to adopt floodplain management standards more restrictive than the NFIP minimum standards.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec60-1.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 60.1(d)]</ref> Communities must consider the additional measures specified in [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec60-22.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 60.22].<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec60-21.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 60.21]</ref> Some states and communities enforce a more protective "Regulatory Floodway" by limiting the cumulative increase in water surface elevation to a half-foot or tenth of a foot instead of the NFIP minimum standard increase of one foot.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1535-20490-8858/is_9_complete.pdf#page=94 |title=Managing Floodplain Development Through The National Flood Insurance Program |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1998 |website=www.fema.gov |publisher=FEMA |pages=94–95|access-date=January 26, 2019}}</ref>

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should permit only development in flood-prone areas that is appropriate with the probability of flood damage.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title44-vol1/pdf/CFR-2018-title44-vol1-sec60-22.pdf 44 C.F.R. § 60.22(a)(1)]</ref> Flooding can damage [[underground storage tanks]] (USTs) resulting in leaks of petroleum that contaminate soil, surface water, and groundwater. USTs may even float out of the ground during floods.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-03/documents/ustfloodguide.pdf#page=4 |title=Underground Storage Tank Flood Guide |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=November 2010  |website=www.epa.gov |publisher=EPA |access-date=January 29, 2019}}</ref>

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should prohibit public utilities to be installed in flood prone areas unless it is essential to be located there.<ref>44 C.F.R. § 60.22(a)(2)</ref> Leakage from on-site sewage systems cause contamination problems during floods.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/septic-systems-what-do-after-flood |title=Septic Systems - What to Do after the Flood |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= July 12, 2017 |website=www.epa.gov |publisher=EPA |access-date=January 31, 2019}}</ref> [[Sanitary sewer overflow]]s and [[Combined sewer|combined sewer overflows]] also release sewage contaminates into flood water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/combined-stormwatersewage-overflow-roswell-ga-sept-2009 |title=Combined Stormwater/Sewage Overflow, Roswell, GA, Sept. 2009 |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.usgs.gov |publisher=USGS |access-date=January 31, 2019 }}</ref> The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency advises "Avoid contact with flood water due to potentially elevated levels of contamination associated with raw sewage and other hazardous or toxic substances that may be in the flood water."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/natural-disasters/flooding |title=Flooding |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=October 29, 2018 |website=www.epa.gov |publisher=EPA |access-date=January 31, 2019}}</ref>

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should divert development to areas safe from flooding to prevent environmentally incompatible flood plain uses.<ref>44 C.F.R. § 60.22(c)(2)</ref> Ruptures of crude oil pipelines result in crude oil contamination of floodplains.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/06022015/yellowstone-oil-spills-expose-threat-pipelines-under-rivers-nationwide |title=Yellowstone Oil Spills Expose Threat to Pipelines Under Rivers Nationwide |last=Douglas |first=Elizabeth |date=2015 |website=insideclimatenews.org |access-date=January 27, 2019}}</ref> Oil spills create numerous [[Oil spill#Environmental effects|environmental harms]]. Releases of gasoline, oil, or natural gas during floods also create fire hazards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://incidentnews.noaa.gov/incident/7053 |title=San Jacinto River Spill |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1994 |website=incidentnews.noaa.gov |publisher=NOAA |access-date=January 27, 2019}}</ref>

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should provide access requirements so that people do not become isolated by flood water.<ref>44 C.F.R. § 60.22(c)(7),(8)</ref> The Illinois Supreme Court found:

{{Blockquote|Even if [[plaintiff]] were to successfully build the two proposed houses in the floodway at an elevation which would not flood, defendant points out, the homes would still be surrounded by moving water during the 100-year floods. Emergency vehicles would not have access to the homes, and the residents could find themselves stranded without food, clean water, or electricity.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Beverly Bank v. Illinois Dept. of Transp. |vol=579 |reporter=N.E.2d |opinion=815 |pinpoint=822 |court=Ill. |date=1991 |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=6226299506783357096 |access-date=February 4, 2019 }}</ref>}}

[[File:FEMA - 587 - Photograph by FEMA News Photo taken on 05-06-2000 in Missouri.jpg|thumb|alt=Chared remains of building. |Loose propane tanks exploded during a flood, causing business to burn down.]]

Safety guidance for propane tanks in floods says propane tanks in floodplains need to be secured to prevent them from floating off during flooding. Propane tanks floating in floods break the connecting piping releasing the gas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.propane101.com/propaneandfloods.htm |title=Propane, LP Gas Tanks and Floods - How to Prepare |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2011 |website=www.propane101.com |access-date=January 29, 2019}}</ref> Leaking propane tanks create fire hazards during floods.<ref>{{YouTube|fVqkd5ITMHc|"Blazing Propane Tank Caught On Video As It Floats Past Flooded House"}}</ref>

A court finds that local governments might have [[Legal immunity|immunity]] for [[Negligence|negligent]] emergency response activities because in an emergency there may not be time to determine the best course of action. However, there may not be grounds for immunity for pre-emergency actions where negligence results in flooding.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Vermef v. City of Boulder City |vol=80 |reporter=P.3d |opinion=445 |pinpoint=447 |court=Nev. |date=2003 |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4406483187622119514 |access-date=February 6, 2019 |quote=In ''Nylund'', this court explained that immunity is granted for negligent emergency management activities because in "an emergency, the government entity leading the response operation does not have time to deliberate and chart a course calculated to provide the customary degree of due care."[19] To grant immunity for pre-emergency negligence, which is wholly independent from negligent emergency management, would not comport with the policy underlying NRS 414.110.}}</ref>

In 2004 the Association of State Floodplain Managers stated "Most local governments have simply assumed that the federal floodplain management approaches embody a satisfactory standard of care, perhaps not realizing that they actually induce additional flooding and damage."<ref name=NoAdverseImpact>{{cite web |url=https://www.floods.org/NoAdverseImpact/NAI_AND_THE_COURTS.pdf#page=8 |title=No Adverse Impact Floodplain Management and the Courts |last=Kusler |first=Jon A., Esq |date=2004 |website=www.floods.org |publisher=Association of State Floodplain Managers |access-date=February 4, 2009}}</ref>{{rp|2}} In 2000, the Association of State Floodplain Managers recommended a "no adverse impact" goal to prevent one property owner from adversely impacting the properties of others.<ref name=NoAdverseImpact />{{rp|1}}

===Related floodplain regulations by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers===
The [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] (USACE) identifies themselves as the Federal government's largest water resources development and management agency. USACE says they provide information, technical services, planning guidance, and planning assistance to guide the development of floodplains.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://planning.erdc.dren.mil/toolbox/library/FactSheets/fpmsfactsheet_June2017.pdf |title=Corps Planning: Floodplain Management Services |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=June 13, 2017 |website=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Planning Community Toolbox, Planner's Library, Fact Sheets |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |access-date=February 28, 2019 }}</ref> USACE says their regulatory program after 1968 evolved to balance the national concerns for both the protection and utilization of important resources by public interest review.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title33-vol3/pdf/CFR-2018-title33-vol3-sec320-1.pdf 33 C.F.R. § 320.1]</ref> The [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2018-title33-vol3/pdf/CFR-2018-title33-vol3-sec320-4.pdf#page=7 33 C.F.R. 320.4(l)(2)] states:

{{Blockquote| In accordance with the requirements of Executive Order 11988, district engineers, as part of their public interest review, should avoid to the extent practicable, long and short term significant adverse impacts associated with the occupancy and modification of floodplains, as well as the direct and indirect support of floodplain development whenever there is a practicable alternative. For those activities which in the public interest must occur in or impact upon floodplains, the district engineer shall ensure, to the maximum extent practicable, that the impacts of potential flooding on human health, safety, and welfare are minimized, the risks of flood losses are minimized, and, whenever practicable the natural and beneficial values served by floodplains are restored and preserved.}}

==FEMA shall consult with Federal, State, and local agencies==
U.S. Congress requires FEMA to consult with other departments and agencies of the Federal Government, and with interstate, State, and local agencies responsible for flood control in order to make certain that those agencies' programs are consistent with the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).<ref>{{USC|42|2024}}</ref> For example, a U.S. District Court ordered FEMA to consult with the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] (NMFS) on FEMA's mapping regulations and FEMA's revisions of flood maps to determine whether they jeopardize the continued existence of the Puget Sound chinook salmon:<ref name=NWFvFEMA2004 />{{rp|1177}}
{{block quote| This "shall consult" language not only gives FEMA discretion to consult, but appears to require FEMA to consult with other agencies, such as NMFS, to ensure that the NFIP is implemented in a manner that is "mutually consistent" with NMFS's programs.<ref name=NWFvFEMA2004 />{{rp |1172–1173}}}}

== Criticisms ==
Prior to the program, property losses resulting from flood damage were largely the responsibility of individual property owners, although some losses were sometimes mitigated through provisions for disaster relief aid. Today, owners of property in flood plains frequently receive disaster aid and payment for insured losses, which in many ways negates the original intent of the NFIP. Consequently, these policy decisions have escalated losses stemming from floods in recent years, both in terms of property and life.<ref>{{cite web
 | url =https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/2019-09/Overwhelming-Risk-Full-Report.pdf
 | title =Overwhelming risk: Rethinking flood insurance in a world of rising seas
 | date =February 2014
 |page = 7
 | publisher =[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]
 | access-date =6 October 2016
 }}</ref>

Moreover, certain provisions within the NFIP increase the likelihood that flood-prone properties will be occupied by the people least likely to be in a position to recover from flood disasters, which further increases demand for aid. This is an example of [[adverse selection]]. Some factors contributing to increased demand for aid are:{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

* Flood insurance for properties in flood prone areas is mandatory only to secure loans, which makes it somewhat more likely that flood prone properties will be owned by seniors who have paid off their mortgages, or investors who have acquired the property for rental income.
* Flood insurance only covers losses for the owner of the property, and claims are subject to caps, which further increases the likelihood that the property will be occupied by renters rather than the property owner.
* Flood prone properties are more likely to be offered for rent because of the owners' increased risks and/or costs associated with occupying the property themselves.
* Flood prone properties are more likely to be offered for rent at a discount, which attracts lower income groups, seniors, and infirm groups.

Some critics want the NFIP restricted to primary residences, excluding secondary vacation homes and investment properties.

According to critics of the program, the government's subsidized insurance plan "encouraged building, and rebuilding, in vulnerable coastal areas and floodplains."<ref name=gristhanscom>{{cite news|last=hanscom|first=Greg|title=Flood pressure: Climate disasters drown FEMA's insurance plans|url=http://grist.org/cities/flood-pressure-how-climate-disasters-put-femas-flood-insurance-program-underwater/|access-date=31 January 2014|newspaper=Grist|date=13 January 2014}}</ref> Stephen Ellis, of the group [[Taxpayers for Common Sense]], points to "properties that flooded 17 or 18 times that were still covered under the federal insurance program" without premiums going up.<ref name="gristhanscom" /> Critics say this program is underperforming because it is starved for funding compared to disaster response and recovery, and the process of applying for a buyout is unreasonably slow.<ref>{{cite episode |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/09/27/553934600/debt-laden-fema-is-slow-to-act-on-program-that-buys-flooded-houses |title=Debt-Laden FEMA Is Slow To Act On Program That Buys Flooded Houses |date=September 27, 2017 |series=Morning Edition |publisher=NPR |first1=Christopher |last1=Joyce |first2=Sarah |last2=McCammon |access-date=8 October 2024}}</ref>

Another criticism is that FEMA does not administer all policies, instead outsourcing many policies to private insurance companies. When a disaster occurs, FEMA makes payments to those private insurance companies to offset their costs. However, there is little oversight and few rules as to how the money should be distributed. As a consequence, private insurers have been known to use FEMA payments to hire attorneys that fight policyholders in court. One law firm is estimated to have received {{US$|29M}} from FEMA payments to fight [[Hurricane Sandy]] claims.<ref name=victimsfight>{{cite news|title=Federal program meant to help flood victims spends millions fighting claims|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/national-flood-insurance-program-meant-to-help-victims-spends-millions-fighting-claims/|newspaper=CBS News|date=30 April 2018}}</ref>

==Flood risk management and climate change==
[[File:Aerial view Louisiana flooding August 2016 USGS.jpg|thumb|alt=About 100 colorful roofs and green trees completely surrounded by tan flood water. |Flooded residential neighborhood during the August [[2016 Louisiana floods]] in southern Louisiana]]
President [[Barack Obama]], on January 30, 2015, issued [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13690 Executive Order 13690] requiring Flood Risk Management to anticipate flooding increases over time due to the effects of climate change.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dwyer |first1=Jim |title=A 'Common Sense' Flood Zone Rule Gets Lost in the Trump Storm |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/nyregion/trump-hurricane-sandy-floods.html |access-date=5 February 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=August 17, 2017}}</ref>

During the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference]], just prior to the signing of the [[Paris Agreement]], on December 9, 2015, ''Reforming the National Flood Insurance Program'' was presented to members of Congress by [[Marsh & McLennan]] CEO [[Peter Zaffino]], urging policymakers to enact reforms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marsh calls for reforms to national flood programme |url=https://www.intelligentinsurer.com/news/marsh-calls-for-reforms-to-national-flood-programme-7412 |publisher=Initelligent Insurer Review |access-date=2 February 2022 |date=December 10, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Zaffino |first1=Peter |title=The Climate Risk No One Is Talking About |url=https://fortune.com/2015/12/15/climate-change-paris-national-flood-insurance-program/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |work=Fortune |date=December 15, 2015}}</ref>

A peer review study found climate change since 1900 may have increased the probability of extreme precipitation events like the [[2016 Louisiana floods#Climate change connection|August 2016 flooding in south Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/21/897/2017/hess-21-897-2017.pdf |title=Rapid attribution of the August 2016 flood-inducing extreme precipitation in south Louisiana to climate change |last1=van der Wiel |first1=Karin |last2=Kapnick |first2=Sarah B. |last3=van Oldenborgh |first3=Geert Jan |last4=Whan |first4=Kirien |last5=Philip |first5=Sjoukje |last6=Vecchi |first6=Gabriel A. |last7=Singh |first7=Roop K. |last8=Arrighi |first8=Julie |last9=Cullen |first9=Heidi |date=February 14, 2017 |website=www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net |publisher=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |access-date=February 8, 2019 }}</ref>

President [[Donald Trump]], on August 15, 2017, issued [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13807 Executive Order 13807] Section 6 of which revokes President Obama's Executive Order 13690.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Freedman |first1=Lisa |title=Trump Signs Order Rolling Back Environmental Rules on Infrastructure |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/climate/flooding-infrastructure-climate-change-trump-obama.html |access-date=2 February 2022 |work=nyt.com |publisher=New York Times |date=August 15, 2017}}</ref>

In January 2021, a petition was filed by the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] (NRDC) and the Association of State Floodplain Managers requesting updates informed by climate change to the NFIP. In October 2021, FEMA issued a public [[request for information]] to upgrade the NFIP.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Scata |first1=Joel |title=FEMA Moves to Reform Flood Insurance Program |url=https://www.nrdc.org/experts/joel-scata/fema-moves-reform-flood-insurance-program#:~:text=The%20NFIP%20sets%20the%20floor,residents%20to%20purchase%20flood%20insurance |website=nrdc.org |publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council |access-date=4 February 2022 |date=October 14, 2021}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Include-FedCourts}}

{{Include-GPO}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |title=The Geography of Risk: Epic Storms, Rising Seas, and the Cost of America's Coasts |author=Gilbert M. Gaul |publisher=Sarah Crichton Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-0374160807}}
* {{cite report|title=FLOOD INSURANCE: Comprehensive Reform Could Improve Solvency and Enhance Resilience|date=April 27, 2017|publisher=Government Accountability Office|url=https://www.gao.gov/assets/690/684551.pdf|access-date=May 29, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=April 4, 2022|title=National Flood Insurance Program: The Current Rating Structure and Risk Rating 2.0|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45999|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=January 6, 2023|title=Options for Making the National Flood Insurance Program More Affordable|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47000|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last1=Horn|first1=Diane P.|last2=Webel|first2=Baird|date=January 9, 2023|title=Private Flood Insurance and the National Flood Insurance Program|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45242|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=March 29, 2024|title=A Brief Introduction to the National Flood Insurance Program|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10988|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=April 1, 2024|title=National Flood Insurance Program Borrowing Authority|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN10784|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=April 1, 2024|title=What Happens If the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) Lapses?|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN10835|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last1=Horn|first1=Diane P.|last2=Webel|first2=Baird|date=April 2, 2024|title=Introduction to the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R44593|access-date=May 23, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=May 28, 2024|title=Flood Buyouts: Federal Funding for Property Acquisition|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11911|access-date=June 5, 2024}}
* {{cite report|last=Horn|first=Diane P.|date=May 28, 2024|title=National Flood Insurance Program Risk Rating 2.0: Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=Congressional Research Service|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11777|access-date=June 5, 2024}}

== External links ==
*http://www.floodsmart.gov
*[https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/4001- Federal law authorizing NFIP]
*[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna25463476 Experts: Flood terms mislead public] [[MSNBC]]

{{United States Department of Homeland Security}}


[[Category:Financial services companies established in 1968]]
[[Category:United States Department of Homeland Security]]
[[Category:Insurance in the United States]]
[[Category:Insurance law]]
[[Category:Flood control acts in the United States]]
[[Category:Program transition]]